Perioperative care: Difference between revisions
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'''Perioperative care''' is defined as "interventions to provide care prior to, during, and immediately after surgery."<ref name="title">{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2007/MB_cgi?term=perioperative+care |title=Perioperative care |accessdate=2007-11-21 |author=National Library of Medicine |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=}}</ref> | '''Perioperative care''' is defined as "interventions to provide care prior to, during, and immediately after surgery."<ref name="title">{{cite web |url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2007/MB_cgi?term=perioperative+care |title=Perioperative care |accessdate=2007-11-21 |author=National Library of Medicine |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote=}}</ref> | ||
:See also [[preoperative care]] | |||
{{editintro}} | {{editintro}} | ||
==Classification== | ==Classification== | ||
| Line 9: | Line 11: | ||
Components of postoperative care may include [[incentive spirometry]]. | Components of postoperative care may include [[incentive spirometry]]. | ||
== | ==Complications== | ||
The benefits of consultation are not clear in an observational study.<ref name="pmid18039993">{{cite journal |author=Auerbach AD, Rasic MA, Sehgal N, Ide B, Stone B, Maselli J |title=Opportunity missed: medical consultation, resource use, and quality of care of patients undergoing major surgery |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=167 |issue=21 |pages=2338–44 |year=2007 |pmid=18039993 |doi=10.1001/archinte.167.21.2338}}</ref> | ===Myocardial ischemia and infarction=== | ||
In noncardiac surgery, myocardial ischemia is more common during the postoperative period than during or before surgery.<ref name="pmid2247116">{{cite journal |author=Mangano DT, Browner WS, Hollenberg M, London MJ, Tubau JF, Tateo IM |title=Association of perioperative myocardial ischemia with cardiac morbidity and mortality in men undergoing noncardiac surgery. The Study of Perioperative Ischemia Research Group |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=323 |issue=26 |pages=1781–8 |year=1990 |month=December |pmid=2247116 |doi= |url= |issn=}}</ref> | |||
In [[coronary artery bypass]] surgery, ischemia is common after release of aortic occlusion.<ref name="pmid9066323">{{cite journal |author=Jain U, Laflamme CJ, Aggarwal A, ''et al.'' |title=Electrocardiographic and hemodynamic changes and their association with myocardial infarction during coronary artery bypass surgery. A multicenter study. Multicenter Study of Perioperative Ischemia (McSPI) Research Group |journal=Anesthesiology |volume=86 |issue=3 |pages=576–91 |year=1997 |month=March |pmid=9066323 |doi= |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0003-3022&volume=86&issue=3&spage=576 |issn=}}</ref> Ischemia may be better detected by transesophageal [[echocardiography]] than by continuous [[electrocardiography]].<ref name="pmid9579503">{{cite journal |author=Comunale ME, Body SC, Ley C, ''et al.'' |title=The concordance of intraoperative left ventricular wall-motion abnormalities and electrocardiographic S-T segment changes: association with outcome after coronary revascularization. Multicenter Study of Perioperative Ischemia (McSPI) Research Group |journal=Anesthesiology |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=945–54 |year=1998 |month=April |pmid=9579503 |doi= |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0003-3022&volume=88&issue=4&spage=945 |issn=}}</ref> | |||
Perioperative [[myocardial infarction]] has been reviewed.<ref name="pmid16157727">{{cite journal |author=Devereaux PJ, Goldman L, Cook DJ, Gilbert K, Leslie K, Guyatt GH |title=Perioperative cardiac events in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery: a review of the magnitude of the problem, the pathophysiology of the events and methods to estimate and communicate risk |journal=CMAJ |volume=173 |issue=6 |pages=627–34 |year=2005 |month=September |pmid=16157727 |pmc=1197163 |doi=10.1503/cmaj.050011 |url=http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16157727 |issn=}}</ref> | |||
[[Myocardial infarction]] is usually NSTEMI.<ref name="pmid10722235">{{cite journal |author=Cohen MC, Aretz TH |title=Histological analysis of coronary artery lesions in fatal postoperative myocardial infarction |journal=Cardiovasc. Pathol. |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=133–9 |year=1999 |pmid=10722235 |doi= |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1054880798000325 |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid2247116">{{cite journal |author=Mangano DT, Browner WS, Hollenberg M, London MJ, Tubau JF, Tateo IM |title=Association of perioperative myocardial ischemia with cardiac morbidity and mortality in men undergoing noncardiac surgery. The Study of Perioperative Ischemia Research Group |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=323 |issue=26 |pages=1781–8 |year=1990 |month=December |pmid=2247116 |doi= |url= |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9523798">{{cite journal |author=Badner NH, Knill RL, Brown JE, Novick TV, Gelb AW |title=Myocardial infarction after noncardiac surgery |journal=Anesthesiology |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=572–8 |year=1998 |month=March |pmid=9523798 |doi= |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0003-3022&volume=88&issue=3&spage=572 |issn=}}</ref> Transmural infarctions may occur, but tend to occur later (one week) during hospitalization and are more likely to be transmural.<ref name="pmid10722235"/> | |||
Older studies showed higher mortality, perhaps due to only detecting large infarctions.<ref name="pmid5038186">{{cite journal |author=Plumlee JE, Boettner RB |title=Myocardial infarction during and following anesthesia and operation |journal=South. Med. J. |volume=65 |issue=7 |pages=886–9 |year=1972 |month=July |pmid=5038186 |doi= |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0038-4348&volume=65&issue=7&spage=886 |issn=}}</ref> | |||
===Respiratory complications and pneumonia=== | |||
===Pulmonary embolism=== | |||
{{main|Pulmonary embolism}} | |||
===Septic shock=== | |||
Sepsis and [[septic shock]] may be the most common complications in perioperative care.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1001/archsurg.2010.107 | volume = 145 | issue = 7 | pages = 695-700 | |||
| last = Moore | first = Laura J. | coauthors = Frederick A. Moore, S. Rob Todd, Stephen L. Jones, Krista L. Turner, Barbara L. Bass | title = Sepsis in General Surgery: The 2005-2007 National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Perspective | journal = Arch Surg | accessdate = 2010-07-20 | date = 2010-07-01 | url = http://archsurg.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/7/695 }}</ref> | |||
==Specific interventions== | |||
===Medical consultation=== | |||
The benefits of medical consultation are not clear in an observational study.<ref name="pmid18039993">{{cite journal |author=Auerbach AD, Rasic MA, Sehgal N, Ide B, Stone B, Maselli J |title=Opportunity missed: medical consultation, resource use, and quality of care of patients undergoing major surgery |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=167 |issue=21 |pages=2338–44 |year=2007 |pmid=18039993 |doi=10.1001/archinte.167.21.2338}}</ref> | |||
===Anemia=== | |||
"The administration of oral iron supplements to elderly, healthy orthopedic patients postoperatively did not hasten the recovery of hemoglobin levels, provided adequate tissue iron stores were present." according to a [[randomized controlled trial]].<ref name="pmid1729575">{{cite journal| author=Zauber NP, Zauber AG, Gordon FJ, Tillis AC, Leeds HC, Berman E et al.| title=Iron supplementation after femoral head replacement for patients with normal iron stores. | journal=JAMA | year= 1992 | volume= 267 | issue= 4 | pages= 525-7 | pmid=1729575 | doi= | pmc= | url= }} </ref> | |||
"Both modified epoetin alfa regimens were effective compared with placebo in reducing allogeneic transfusion in patients undergoing hip arthroplasty" according to a [[randomized controlled trial]].<ref name="pmid11103054">{{cite journal| author=Feagan BG, Wong CJ, Kirkley A, Johnston DW, Smith FC, Whitsitt P et al.| title=Erythropoietin with iron supplementation to prevent allogeneic blood transfusion in total hip joint arthroplasty. A randomized, controlled trial. | journal=Ann Intern Med | year= 2000 | volume= 133 | issue= 11 | pages= 845-54 | pmid=11103054 | doi= | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11103054 }} </ref> | |||
Among patients receiving coronary artery bypass grafting, there may be no meaningful difference between transfusing to maintain a hemoglobin levels > 8 g/dL versus a hemoglobin levels > 9 g/dL.<ref name="pmid10532600">{{cite journal |author=Bracey AW, Radovancevic R, Riggs SA, ''et al'' |title=Lowering the hemoglobin threshold for transfusion in coronary artery bypass procedures: effect on patient outcome |journal=Transfusion |volume=39 |issue=10 |pages=1070–7 |year=1999 |pmid=10532600 |doi= |issn=}}</ref> However, hemoglobin levels < 8 g/dL may increase complications.<ref name="pmid12375651">{{cite journal |author=Carson JL, Noveck H, Berlin JA, Gould SA |title=Mortality and morbidity in patients with very low postoperative Hb levels who decline blood transfusion |journal=Transfusion |volume=42 |issue=7 |pages=812–8 |year=2002 |pmid=12375651 |doi= |issn=}}</ref> | Among patients receiving coronary artery bypass grafting, there may be no meaningful difference between transfusing to maintain a hemoglobin levels > 8 g/dL versus a hemoglobin levels > 9 g/dL.<ref name="pmid10532600">{{cite journal |author=Bracey AW, Radovancevic R, Riggs SA, ''et al'' |title=Lowering the hemoglobin threshold for transfusion in coronary artery bypass procedures: effect on patient outcome |journal=Transfusion |volume=39 |issue=10 |pages=1070–7 |year=1999 |pmid=10532600 |doi= |issn=}}</ref> However, hemoglobin levels < 8 g/dL may increase complications.<ref name="pmid12375651">{{cite journal |author=Carson JL, Noveck H, Berlin JA, Gould SA |title=Mortality and morbidity in patients with very low postoperative Hb levels who decline blood transfusion |journal=Transfusion |volume=42 |issue=7 |pages=812–8 |year=2002 |pmid=12375651 |doi= |issn=}}</ref> | ||
Among patients undergoing surgery for hip fracture, there may be no meaningful difference between transfusing to maintain a hemoglobin levels > 8 g/dL versus a hemoglobin levels > 10 g/dL.<ref name="pmid22168590">{{cite journal| author=Carson JL, Terrin ML, Noveck H, Sanders DW, Chaitman BR, Rhoads GG et al.| title=Liberal or restrictive transfusion in high-risk patients after hip surgery. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 2011 | volume= 365 | issue= 26 | pages= 2453-62 | pmid=22168590 | doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1012452 | pmc=PMC3268062 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22168590 }} </ref> | |||
===Glucose control=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ [[Randomized controlled trial]]s of intraoperative glucose control.<ref name="pmid21865944">{{cite journal| author=Lazar HL, McDonnell MM, Chipkin S, Fitzgerald C, Bliss C, Cabral H| title=Effects of aggressive versus moderate glycemic control on clinical outcomes in diabetic coronary artery bypass graft patients. | journal=Ann Surg | year= 2011 | volume= 254 | issue= 3 | pages= 458-64 | pmid=21865944 | doi=10.1097/SLA.0b013e31822c5d78 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21865944 }} </ref><ref name="pmid19387173">{{cite journal| author=Subramaniam B, Panzica PJ, Novack V, Mahmood F, Matyal R, Mitchell JD et al.| title=Continuous perioperative insulin infusion decreases major cardiovascular events in patients undergoing vascular surgery: a prospective, randomized trial. | journal=Anesthesiology | year= 2009 | volume= 110 | issue= 5 | pages= 970-7 | pmid=19387173 | |||
| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&email=badgett@uthscdsa.edu&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=19387173 | doi=10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181a1005b }} </ref><ref name="pmid17310047">{{cite journal |author=Gandhi GY, Nuttall GA, Abel MD, ''et al'' |title=Intensive intraoperative insulin therapy versus conventional glucose management during cardiac surgery: a randomized trial |journal=Ann. Intern. Med. |volume=146 |issue=4 |pages=233–43 |year=2007 |pmid=17310047 |doi= |issn=|url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/146/4/233}}</ref> | |||
! rowspan="2"|Trial!!rowspan="2"| Patients!!rowspan="2"| Intervention!!rowspan="2"|Comparison !!rowspan="2"|Outcome!!colspan="2"|Results!!rowspan="2"|Sources of bias | |||
|-<br/> | |||
! Intervention!!Control | |||
|- | |||
| Lazar<ref name="pmid21865944"/><br/>2011|| 82 diabetic patients undergoing [[coronary artery bypass]]|| Continuous insulin infusion with target glucose 90-120 mg/dl|| Continuous insulin infusion with target glucose 120-180 mg/dl || Composite of "30-day mortality, myocardial infarction, neurologic events, deep sternal infections, and atrial fibrillation"||style="background:lime"| 37%|| 42%||Insignificant results, but underpowered | |||
|- | |||
| Subramaniam<ref name="pmid19387173"/><br/>2009|| 236 patients for vascular surgery or lower limb amputation|| Continuous insulin infusion with target glucose 100-150 mg/dl|| Intermittent insulin bolus if glucose > 150 mg/dl || "Composite of all-cause death, myocardial infarction, and acute congestive heart failure" (stroke not studied)<br/>Blinding not stated||style="background:lime"| 3.5%|| 12.3%|| Unblinded<br/>Early termination and without adjustment of p-value | |||
|- | |||
| Gandhi<ref name="pmid17310047"/><br/>2007|| 400 patients for cardiac surgery||Continuous insulin infusion with target glucose 80-100 mg/dl||Insulin bolus or continuous if glucose > 200 mg/dL || "Composite of death, sternal infections, prolonged ventilation, cardiac arrhythmias, stroke, and renal failure within 30 days"<br/>Blinded end point assessment || 44%<br/>(<span style="background:red">but significantly more strokes</span>)|| 46%|| None | |||
|} | |||
Regarding intraoperative control of glucose, a [[randomized controlled trial]] concluded "the increased incidence of death and stroke in the intensive treatment group raises concern about routine implementation of this intervention."<ref name="pmid17310047"/> | |||
===Hemodynamic interventions=== | |||
"The use of a preemptive strategy of hemodynamic monitoring and coupled therapy reduces surgical mortality and morbidity" according to a [[meta-analysis]] of trials. <ref name="pmid20966436">{{cite journal| author=Hamilton MA, Cecconi M, Rhodes A| title=A systematic review and meta-analysis on the use of preemptive hemodynamic intervention to improve postoperative outcomes in moderate and high-risk surgical patients. | journal=Anesth Analg | year= 2011 | volume= 112 | issue= 6 | pages= 1392-402 | pmid=20966436 | doi=10.1213/ANE.0b013e3181eeaae5 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20966436 }} </ref> | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
| Line 19: | Line 69: | ||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[Preoperative care]] | * [[Preoperative care]][[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]] | ||
Latest revision as of 16:01, 2 October 2024
Perioperative care is defined as "interventions to provide care prior to, during, and immediately after surgery."[1]
- See also preoperative care
[]
Classification
Intraoperative Care
Postoperative Care
Components of postoperative care may include incentive spirometry.
Complications
Myocardial ischemia and infarction
In noncardiac surgery, myocardial ischemia is more common during the postoperative period than during or before surgery.[2]
In coronary artery bypass surgery, ischemia is common after release of aortic occlusion.[3] Ischemia may be better detected by transesophageal echocardiography than by continuous electrocardiography.[4]
Perioperative myocardial infarction has been reviewed.[5]
Myocardial infarction is usually NSTEMI.[6][2][7] Transmural infarctions may occur, but tend to occur later (one week) during hospitalization and are more likely to be transmural.[6]
Older studies showed higher mortality, perhaps due to only detecting large infarctions.[8]
Respiratory complications and pneumonia
Pulmonary embolism
Septic shock
Sepsis and septic shock may be the most common complications in perioperative care.[9]
Specific interventions
Medical consultation
The benefits of medical consultation are not clear in an observational study.[10]
Anemia
"The administration of oral iron supplements to elderly, healthy orthopedic patients postoperatively did not hasten the recovery of hemoglobin levels, provided adequate tissue iron stores were present." according to a randomized controlled trial.[11]
"Both modified epoetin alfa regimens were effective compared with placebo in reducing allogeneic transfusion in patients undergoing hip arthroplasty" according to a randomized controlled trial.[12]
Among patients receiving coronary artery bypass grafting, there may be no meaningful difference between transfusing to maintain a hemoglobin levels > 8 g/dL versus a hemoglobin levels > 9 g/dL.[13] However, hemoglobin levels < 8 g/dL may increase complications.[14]
Among patients undergoing surgery for hip fracture, there may be no meaningful difference between transfusing to maintain a hemoglobin levels > 8 g/dL versus a hemoglobin levels > 10 g/dL.[15]
Glucose control
| Trial | Patients | Intervention | Comparison | Outcome | Results | Sources of bias | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Intervention | Control | ||||||
| Lazar[16] 2011 |
82 diabetic patients undergoing coronary artery bypass | Continuous insulin infusion with target glucose 90-120 mg/dl | Continuous insulin infusion with target glucose 120-180 mg/dl | Composite of "30-day mortality, myocardial infarction, neurologic events, deep sternal infections, and atrial fibrillation" | 37% | 42% | Insignificant results, but underpowered |
| Subramaniam[17] 2009 |
236 patients for vascular surgery or lower limb amputation | Continuous insulin infusion with target glucose 100-150 mg/dl | Intermittent insulin bolus if glucose > 150 mg/dl | "Composite of all-cause death, myocardial infarction, and acute congestive heart failure" (stroke not studied) Blinding not stated |
3.5% | 12.3% | Unblinded Early termination and without adjustment of p-value |
| Gandhi[18] 2007 |
400 patients for cardiac surgery | Continuous insulin infusion with target glucose 80-100 mg/dl | Insulin bolus or continuous if glucose > 200 mg/dL | "Composite of death, sternal infections, prolonged ventilation, cardiac arrhythmias, stroke, and renal failure within 30 days" Blinded end point assessment |
44% (but significantly more strokes) |
46% | None |
Regarding intraoperative control of glucose, a randomized controlled trial concluded "the increased incidence of death and stroke in the intensive treatment group raises concern about routine implementation of this intervention."[18]
Hemodynamic interventions
"The use of a preemptive strategy of hemodynamic monitoring and coupled therapy reduces surgical mortality and morbidity" according to a meta-analysis of trials. [19]
References
- ↑ National Library of Medicine. Perioperative care. Retrieved on 2007-11-21.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Mangano DT, Browner WS, Hollenberg M, London MJ, Tubau JF, Tateo IM (December 1990). "Association of perioperative myocardial ischemia with cardiac morbidity and mortality in men undergoing noncardiac surgery. The Study of Perioperative Ischemia Research Group". N. Engl. J. Med. 323 (26): 1781–8. PMID 2247116. [e]
- ↑ Jain U, Laflamme CJ, Aggarwal A, et al. (March 1997). "Electrocardiographic and hemodynamic changes and their association with myocardial infarction during coronary artery bypass surgery. A multicenter study. Multicenter Study of Perioperative Ischemia (McSPI) Research Group". Anesthesiology 86 (3): 576–91. PMID 9066323. [e]
- ↑ Comunale ME, Body SC, Ley C, et al. (April 1998). "The concordance of intraoperative left ventricular wall-motion abnormalities and electrocardiographic S-T segment changes: association with outcome after coronary revascularization. Multicenter Study of Perioperative Ischemia (McSPI) Research Group". Anesthesiology 88 (4): 945–54. PMID 9579503. [e]
- ↑ Devereaux PJ, Goldman L, Cook DJ, Gilbert K, Leslie K, Guyatt GH (September 2005). "Perioperative cardiac events in patients undergoing noncardiac surgery: a review of the magnitude of the problem, the pathophysiology of the events and methods to estimate and communicate risk". CMAJ 173 (6): 627–34. DOI:10.1503/cmaj.050011. PMID 16157727. PMC 1197163. Research Blogging.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Cohen MC, Aretz TH (1999). "Histological analysis of coronary artery lesions in fatal postoperative myocardial infarction". Cardiovasc. Pathol. 8 (3): 133–9. PMID 10722235. [e]
- ↑ Badner NH, Knill RL, Brown JE, Novick TV, Gelb AW (March 1998). "Myocardial infarction after noncardiac surgery". Anesthesiology 88 (3): 572–8. PMID 9523798. [e]
- ↑ Plumlee JE, Boettner RB (July 1972). "Myocardial infarction during and following anesthesia and operation". South. Med. J. 65 (7): 886–9. PMID 5038186. [e]
- ↑ Moore, Laura J.; Frederick A. Moore, S. Rob Todd, Stephen L. Jones, Krista L. Turner, Barbara L. Bass (2010-07-01). "Sepsis in General Surgery: The 2005-2007 National Surgical Quality Improvement Program Perspective". Arch Surg 145 (7): 695-700. DOI:10.1001/archsurg.2010.107. Retrieved on 2010-07-20. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Auerbach AD, Rasic MA, Sehgal N, Ide B, Stone B, Maselli J (2007). "Opportunity missed: medical consultation, resource use, and quality of care of patients undergoing major surgery". Arch. Intern. Med. 167 (21): 2338–44. DOI:10.1001/archinte.167.21.2338. PMID 18039993. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Zauber NP, Zauber AG, Gordon FJ, Tillis AC, Leeds HC, Berman E et al. (1992). "Iron supplementation after femoral head replacement for patients with normal iron stores.". JAMA 267 (4): 525-7. PMID 1729575. [e]
- ↑ Feagan BG, Wong CJ, Kirkley A, Johnston DW, Smith FC, Whitsitt P et al. (2000). "Erythropoietin with iron supplementation to prevent allogeneic blood transfusion in total hip joint arthroplasty. A randomized, controlled trial.". Ann Intern Med 133 (11): 845-54. PMID 11103054. [e]
- ↑ Bracey AW, Radovancevic R, Riggs SA, et al (1999). "Lowering the hemoglobin threshold for transfusion in coronary artery bypass procedures: effect on patient outcome". Transfusion 39 (10): 1070–7. PMID 10532600. [e]
- ↑ Carson JL, Noveck H, Berlin JA, Gould SA (2002). "Mortality and morbidity in patients with very low postoperative Hb levels who decline blood transfusion". Transfusion 42 (7): 812–8. PMID 12375651. [e]
- ↑ Carson JL, Terrin ML, Noveck H, Sanders DW, Chaitman BR, Rhoads GG et al. (2011). "Liberal or restrictive transfusion in high-risk patients after hip surgery.". N Engl J Med 365 (26): 2453-62. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa1012452. PMID 22168590. PMC PMC3268062. Research Blogging.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 Lazar HL, McDonnell MM, Chipkin S, Fitzgerald C, Bliss C, Cabral H (2011). "Effects of aggressive versus moderate glycemic control on clinical outcomes in diabetic coronary artery bypass graft patients.". Ann Surg 254 (3): 458-64. DOI:10.1097/SLA.0b013e31822c5d78. PMID 21865944. Research Blogging.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 Subramaniam B, Panzica PJ, Novack V, Mahmood F, Matyal R, Mitchell JD et al. (2009). "Continuous perioperative insulin infusion decreases major cardiovascular events in patients undergoing vascular surgery: a prospective, randomized trial.". Anesthesiology 110 (5): 970-7. DOI:10.1097/ALN.0b013e3181a1005b. PMID 19387173. Research Blogging.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Gandhi GY, Nuttall GA, Abel MD, et al (2007). "Intensive intraoperative insulin therapy versus conventional glucose management during cardiac surgery: a randomized trial". Ann. Intern. Med. 146 (4): 233–43. PMID 17310047. [e]
- ↑ Hamilton MA, Cecconi M, Rhodes A (2011). "A systematic review and meta-analysis on the use of preemptive hemodynamic intervention to improve postoperative outcomes in moderate and high-risk surgical patients.". Anesth Analg 112 (6): 1392-402. DOI:10.1213/ANE.0b013e3181eeaae5. PMID 20966436. Research Blogging.