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In 1969, a group of women manga artists later called the ''Year 24 Group'' (also known as ''Magnificent 24s'') made their ''shōjo'' manga debut (year 24 comes from the Japanese name for 1949, when many of these artists were born).<ref>Gravett, 2004, ''op. cit.'', pp.78-80.</ref><ref>Lent, 2001, ''op. cit.'', pp. 9-10.</ref> The group included Hagio Moto, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Oshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Ryoko Yamagishi<ref name="Gravett" /> and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga.<ref name="Schodt1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> Thereafter, ''shōjo'' manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women.<ref name="Schodt1986" /><ref name="Thorn2001" /><ref name="Toku2005" />  
In 1969, a group of women manga artists later called the ''Year 24 Group'' (also known as ''Magnificent 24s'') made their ''shōjo'' manga debut (year 24 comes from the Japanese name for 1949, when many of these artists were born).<ref>Gravett, 2004, ''op. cit.'', pp.78-80.</ref><ref>Lent, 2001, ''op. cit.'', pp. 9-10.</ref> The group included Hagio Moto, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Oshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Ryoko Yamagishi<ref name="Gravett" /> and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga.<ref name="Schodt1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /> Thereafter, ''shōjo'' manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women.<ref name="Schodt1986" /><ref name="Thorn2001" /><ref name="Toku2005" />  


In 1971, Ikeda began her immensely popular ''shōjo'' manga ''Berusaiyu no Bara'' (''The Rose of Versailles''), a story of Oscar François de Jarjayes, a cross-dressing woman who was a Captain in Marie Antoinette's Palace Guards in pre-Revolutionary France.<ref name="Schodt1986" /><ref name="Tchiei1998"/><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="ShaVer">Shamoon, Deborah. 2007. "Revolutionary romance: ''The Rose of Versailles'' and the transformation of shojo manga." ''Mechademia: An Annual Forum for Anime, Manga, and Fan Arts.'' 2:3-17.</ref> In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille. Likewise, Hagio Moto's work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women's roles and activities <ref name="Uno" /><ref name="Ohinata" /><ref name="Yoshizumi" /> as in her 1975 ''They Were Eleven'', a ''shōjo'' science fiction story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.<ref>Hagio Moto 1975/1996 "They Were Eleven." In: Matt Thorn (editor) ''Four Shojo Stories''. San Francisco: Viz Media. ISBN 1569310556. Original story published 1975; U.S. edition 1996.</ref>  
In 1971, Ikeda began her immensely popular ''shōjo'' manga ''Berusaiyu no Bara'' (''The Rose of Versailles''), a story of Oscar François de Jarjayes, a cross-dressing woman who was a Captain in Marie Antoinette's Palace Guards in pre-Revolutionary France.<ref name="Schodt1986" /><ref name="Tchiei1998"/><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="ShaVer">Shamoon, Deborah. 2007. "Revolutionary romance: ''The Rose of Versailles'' and the transformation of shojo manga." ''Mechademia: An Annual Forum for Anime, Manga, and Fan Arts.'' 2:3-17.</ref> In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille.<ref name = "BeruBara"> BB has not been translated into English, but French editions are available.</ref> Likewise, Hagio Moto's work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women's roles and activities <ref name="Uno" /><ref name="Ohinata" /><ref name="Yoshizumi" /> as in her 1975 ''They Were Eleven'', a ''shōjo'' science fiction story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.<ref>Hagio Moto 1975/1996 "They Were Eleven." In: Matt Thorn (editor) ''Four Shojo Stories''. San Francisco: Viz Media. ISBN 1569310556. Original story published 1975; U.S. edition 1996.</ref>  


These women artists also created considerable stylistic innovations. In its focus on the heroine's inner experiences and feelings, ''shōjo'' manga are "picture poems"<ref>Schodt, 1986, ''op. cit.'', p 88.</ref> with delicate and complex designs that often eliminate panel borders completely to create prolonged, non-narrative extensions of time.<ref name="Schodt1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Thorn2001" /><ref name="Toku2005" /><ref name="McCloud">McCloud, Scott. 1993. ''Understanding Comics''. New York: Paradox Press. pp. 77-82.</ref> All of these innovations – strong and independent female characters, intense emotionality, and complex design – remain characteristic of ''shōjo'' manga up to the present day.<ref name="Tchiei1998" /><ref name="Sanchez" />
These women artists also created considerable stylistic innovations. In its focus on the heroine's inner experiences and feelings, ''shōjo'' manga are "picture poems"<ref>Schodt, 1986, ''op. cit.'', p 88.</ref> with delicate and complex designs that often eliminate panel borders completely to create prolonged, non-narrative extensions of time.<ref name="Schodt1986" /><ref name="Gravett" /><ref name="Thorn2001" /><ref name="Toku2005" /><ref name="McCloud">McCloud, Scott. 1993. ''Understanding Comics''. New York: Paradox Press. pp. 77-82.</ref> All of these innovations – strong and independent female characters, intense emotionality, and complex design – remain characteristic of ''shōjo'' manga up to the present day.<ref name="Tchiei1998" /><ref name="Sanchez" />
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A comprehensive history of stylistic novelty and innovation in ''shōjo'' and related manga has yet to be written in English. Nonetheless, certain trends are apparent.  
A comprehensive history of stylistic novelty and innovation in ''shōjo'' and related manga has yet to be written in English. Nonetheless, certain trends are apparent.  


One is the fluidity and dissolution of panel borders. Early ''shōjo manga,'' like ''Mahōtsukai Sarii'' and ''Ribon no Kishi,'' were composed of a regular series of rectangular panels with sharply defined borders, a style familiar to U.S. readers from newspaper comic strips and comic books.<ref>Cite Sarii book and Ribon book</ref> By the end of the 1960s and the emergence of women-drawn ''shōjo'' manga, images were no longer separated by distinct borders, and what borders did exist were often non-rectangular.<ref>BeruBara; Shigematsu and Shiokawa.</ref> Because borders are absent, the same character may appear more than once in the same image<ref>Like the stage setting of the shrine; Schodt</ref> thereby to create a sense not that the character has been reduplicated but remains the same no matter where she is. Time is not atomized into distinct frames, but becomes continuous, and psychological unity and continuity of apparent movement are created not by a regular succession of film-like images projected onto a rectangular panel or screen, but by showing different aspects of a unitary character as she stops to think, feel, or interact with her world. She remains the same person, because no borders or barriers separate her from her former self.
One is the fluidity and dissolution of panel borders. Early ''shōjo manga,'' like ''Mahōtsukai Sarii'' and ''Ribon no Kishi,'' were composed of a regular series of rectangular panels with sharply defined borders, a style familiar to U.S. readers from newspaper comic strips and comic books.<ref>Cite Sarii book and Ribon book; also McCloud and Cohn?</ref> By the end of the 1960s and the emergence of women-drawn ''shōjo'' manga, images were no longer separated by distinct borders, and what borders did exist were often non-rectangular.<ref>BeruBara; Shigematsu and Shiokawa.</ref> Because borders are absent, the same character may appear more than once in the same image<ref>Like the stage setting of the shrine; Schodt</ref> thereby to create a sense not that the character has been reduplicated but remains the same no matter where she is. Time is not atomized into distinct frames, but becomes continuous, and psychological unity and continuity of apparent movement are created not by a regular succession of film-like images projected onto a rectangular panel or screen, but by showing different aspects of a unitary character as she stops to think, feel, or interact with her world. She remains the same person, because no borders or barriers separate her from her former self.


Another innovation was the extensive use of decorative motifs in the drawing. These include flowers, feathers, stars, sparkles, and swirls that cause a multiplicity of images to fuse into a single, coherent visual and psychological statement.
Another innovation was the extensive use of decorative motifs in the drawing. These include flowers, feathers, stars, sparkles, and swirls that cause a multiplicity of images to fuse into a single, coherent visual and psychological statement.

Revision as of 15:01, 28 September 2008

Sandbox for History of Manga article

Please do not make changes directly on the draft text. It causes chaos -- and I speak from experience. Instead, put comments, criticisms, and suggestions below the text under a separate heading. Thanks. Timothy Perper 10:25, 27 September 2008 (CDT)

History of Manga Article

This is a highly modified version of an article I wrote for Wikipedia. It has new material and has been edited substantially.


Introduction

Manga is a Japanese word meaning "comics" or "cartoon." The word itself dates to the late 18th century[1] and was used by the great 18-19th century Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai for some of his drawings and sketches[2] but stories told in pictures and sometimes words date back to 13th century Japan.[3] This article outlines debates and events in the history of manga.

Debates about the Origins of Manga

Historians of manga see two broad processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in how much importance is assigned to events after World War II versus events before the war and in Meiji and pre-Meiji Japanese culture and art. These differences of opinion are, in part, arguments over the role of non-Japanese influences, e.g., of the United States, compared to older and far more purely Japanese influences in shaping the art of Japan. Because these issues deal with Japanese national pride, they can become quite heated.

Japanese writers like Takashi Murakami stress events after World War II as crucial for shaping modern manga. Murakami sees Japan's staggering defeat and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as having created long-lasting scars on the Japanese artistic psyche, which, in his view, lost its previously virile confidence in itself and sought solace in harmless and cute (kawaii) images.[4][5][6] Takayumi Tatsumi also sees a major role for events after World War II, but instead of war, for him a special role exists for a transpacific economic and cultural transnationalism that created a postmodern and shared international youth culture of cartooning, film, television, music, and related popular arts. For Tatsumi, the crucible in which modern manga have developed is post-modernism, not bitter memories of war, immense destruction, and ultimate defeat.[7]

For Murakami and Tatsumi, transnationalism (or globalization) refers specifically to the flow of cultural and subcultural material from one nation to another and to how artistic, aesthetic, and intellectual traditions influence each other across national boundaries.[4][5][7] An example of cultural transnationalism is the creation of Star Wars films in the United States, their transformation into manga by Japanese artists, and the marketing of Star Wars manga to the United States.[8] Another example is the transfer of hip-hop culture from the United States to Japan.[9] Wong also sees a major role for transnationalism in the recent history of manga.[10]

Nonetheless, other writers stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions as central to the history of manga. They include Frederik L. Schodt,[3][11] Kinko Ito,[12] and Adam L. Kern.[1][13] Schodt points to the existence in the 1200s of illustrated picture scrolls like the Toba-e scrolls that told stories in sequential images with humor and wit.[3] Schodt also stresses continuities of aesthetic style and vision between ukiyo-e and shunga woodblock prints and modern manga (all three fulfill Will Eisner's criteria for sequential art.[14]

Schodt also sees a particularly significant role for kamishibai, a form of street theater where itinerant artists displayed pictures in a light box while narrating the story to audiences in the street.[3] Richard Torrance has pointed to similarities between modern manga and the Osaka popular novel between the 1890s and 1940, and argues that the development of widespread literacy in Meiji and post-Meiji Japan helped create audiences for stories told in words and pictures.[15] Kinko Ito also roots manga historically in aesthetic continuity with pre-Meiji art, but she sees its post-World War II history as driven in part by consumer enthusiasm for the rich imagery and narrative of the newly developing manga tradition. Ito describes how this tradition has steadily produced new genres and markets, e.g., for girls' (shōjo) manga in the late 1960s and for Ladies Comics in the 1980s (in Japanese, also called redisu レディース, redikomi レヂィーコミ, and josei 女性 じょせい manga).[12]

Kern has suggested that kibyōshi, illustrated picture books from the late 1700s, may have been the world's first comic books.[1] These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.[1] Although Kern does not believe that kibyōshi were a direct forerunner of manga, for Kern the existence of kibyōshi nonetheless points to a Japanese willingness to mix words and pictures in a popular story-telling medium.[13] The first recorded use of the term "manga" to mean "whimsical or impromptu pictures" comes from this tradition in 1798, which, Kern points out, predates Katsushika Hokusai's better known usage by several decades.[2]

Similarly, Charles Shirō Inoue sees manga as being a mixture of image- and word-centered elements, each pre-dating the U.S. occupation of Japan. In his view, Japanese image-centered or "pictocentric" art ultimately derives from Japan's long history of engagement with Chinese graphic art, whereas word-centered or "logocentric" art, like the novel, was stimulated by social and economic needs of Meiji and pre-War Japanese nationalism to create a populace unified by a common written language. Both fuse in what Inoue sees as a symbiosis in manga.[16]

Thus, these scholars see the history of manga as involving historical continuities and discontinuities between the aesthetic and cultural past as it interacts with post-World War II innovation and transnationalism.

After World War II

Modern manga originates in the Occupation (1945-1952) and post-Occupation years (1952-early 1960s), when a previously militaristic and ultranationalist Japan was rebuilding its political and economic infrastructure.[3][17] Although U.S. Occupation censorship policies specifically prohibited art and writing that glorified war and Japanese militarism,[3] those policies did not prevent the publication of other kinds of material, including manga. Furthermore, the 1947 Constitution of Japan|Japanese Constitution (Article 21) prohibited all forms of censorship.[18] One result was an explosion of artistic creativity in this period.[3]

In the forefront of this period are two manga series and characters that influenced much of the future history of manga. These are Osamu Tezuka's Mighty Atom (Astro Boy in the United States; begun in 1951) and Machiko Hasegawa's Sazae-san (begun in 1946).

Astro Boy was both a superpowered robot and a naive little boy.[19] Tezuka never explained why Astro Boy had such a highly developed social conscience nor what kind of robot programming could make him so deeply affiliative.[19] Both seem innate to Astro Boy, and represent a Japanese sociality and community-oriented masculinity differing very much from the Emperor-worship and militaristic obedience enforced during the previous period of Japanese imperialism.[19] Astro Boy quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere as an icon and hero of a new world of peace and the renunciation of war, as also seen in Article 9 of the Japanese constitution.[18][19] Similar themes occur in Tezuka's New World and Metropolis.[3][19]

By contrast, Sazae-san (meaning "Ms. Sazae") was drawn starting in 1946 by Machiko Hasegawa, a young woman artist who made her heroine a stand-in for millions of Japanese men and especially women rendered homeless by the war.[3][20] Sazae-san does not face an easy or simple life, but, like Astro Boy, she too is highly affiliative and is deeply involved with her immediate and extended family. She is also a very strong character, in striking contrast to the officially sanctioned Neo-Confucianist principles of feminine meekness and obedience to the "good wife, wise mother" (ryōsai kenbo, りょうさいけんぼ; 良妻賢母) ideal taught by the previous military regime.[21][22][23] Sazae-san faces the world with cheerful resilience,[20][24] what Hayao Kawai calls a "woman of endurance."[25] Sazae-san sold more than 62 million copies over the next half century.[26]

Although Tezuka and Hasegawa both drew extensively from prior illustrative and cartoon traditions in Japan, they were also both stylistic innovators. In particular, Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique became very well known.[27] Natsu Onoda[27] suggests that Tezuka's use of film techniques was systematic and thorough-going, involving quotations from film, e.g., from Orson Welles' Citizen Kane and William Wyler's The Best Years of Our Lives; making use of an imaginary camera for framing shots (that is, panels), for establishing movement, and for mimicking the effects of deep focus cinematography[28]; and in the use of a "star system" in which certain manga characters appear in different roles in different stories.[29] Whether by these techniques or the skillful use of existing techniques or both, Tezuka's work has a cinematic dynamism that occurs widely in later manga.[3] Hasegawa's focus on daily life and on women's experience also came to characterize later shōjo manga.[20][30][31] Her intense narrative focus on everyday feelings and experience portrayed women's lives as being the dramatic equal of the adventures of male heroes who slay enemies and found empires.

Between 1950 and 1969, increasingly large audiences for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres, shōnen manga aimed at boys and shōjo manga aimed at girls.[3][32][33] Up to 1969, shōjo manga was drawn primarily by adult men for young female readers.[3][32]

Two very popular and influential male-authored manga for girls from this period were Tezuka's 1953-1956 Ribon no Kishi (Princess Knight or Knight in Ribbons) and Matsuteru Yokoyama's 1966 Mahōtsukai Sarii (Little Witch Sally).[3] Ribon no Kishi dealt with the adventures of Princess Sapphire of a fantasy kingdom who had been born with male and female souls, and whose sword-swinging battles and romances blurred the boundaries of otherwise rigid gender roles.[3] Sarii, the pre-teen princess heroine of Mahōtsukai Sarii,[34] came from her home in the magical lands to live on Earth, go to school, and perform a variety of magical good deeds for her friends and schoolmates.[35] Some U.S. writers feel that Yokoyama's Mahōtsukai Sarii was influenced by the U.S. TV sitcom Bewitched[36] but Sarii is a very different character than Samantha, the protagonist of Bewitched. Samantha is married woman with her own daughter, but Sarii is a pre-teenager who faces the problems of growing up and mastering the responsibilities of forthcoming adulthood. Mahōtsukai Sarii helped create the now very popular mahō shōjo or "magical girl" subgenre of later manga.[35] Both series were and still are very popular.[3][35]

Shōjo manga

In 1969, a group of women manga artists later called the Year 24 Group (also known as Magnificent 24s) made their shōjo manga debut (year 24 comes from the Japanese name for 1949, when many of these artists were born).[37][38] The group included Hagio Moto, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Oshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Ryoko Yamagishi[20] and they marked the first major entry of women artists into manga.[3][20] Thereafter, shōjo manga would be drawn primarily by women artists for an audience of girls and young women.[3][32][33]

In 1971, Ikeda began her immensely popular shōjo manga Berusaiyu no Bara (The Rose of Versailles), a story of Oscar François de Jarjayes, a cross-dressing woman who was a Captain in Marie Antoinette's Palace Guards in pre-Revolutionary France.[3][17][20][39] In the end, Oscar dies as a revolutionary leading a charge of her troops against the Bastille.[40] Likewise, Hagio Moto's work challenged Neo-Confucianist limits on women's roles and activities [21][22][23] as in her 1975 They Were Eleven, a shōjo science fiction story about a young woman cadet in a future space academy.[41]

These women artists also created considerable stylistic innovations. In its focus on the heroine's inner experiences and feelings, shōjo manga are "picture poems"[42] with delicate and complex designs that often eliminate panel borders completely to create prolonged, non-narrative extensions of time.[3][20][32][33][43] All of these innovations – strong and independent female characters, intense emotionality, and complex design – remain characteristic of shōjo manga up to the present day.[17][31]

Shōjo manga and Ladies' Comics from 1975 to today

In the following decades (1975-present), shōjo manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres.[44] Major subgenres have included romance, superheroines, and "Ladies Comics", whose boundaries are sometimes indistinguishable from each other and from shōnen manga.[11][20]

In modern shōjo manga romance, love is a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self-realization.[45] Japanese manga/anime critic Eri Izawa defines romance as symbolizing "the emotional, the grand, the epic; the taste of heroism, fantastic adventure, and the melancholy; passionate love, personal struggle, and eternal longing" set into imaginative, individualistic, and passionate narrative frameworks.[46] These romances are sometimes long narratives that can deal with distinguishing between false and true love, coping with sexual intercourse, and growing up in a complex world, themes inherited by subsequent animated versions of the story.[33][45][47] These "coming of age" or bildungsroman[48] themes occur in both shōjo and shōnen manga.[49]

In the bildungsroman, the protagonist must deal with adversity and conflict,[48] and examples in shōjo manga of romantic conflict are common. They include Miwa Ueda's Peach Girl,[50][51] Fuyumi Soryo's Mars,[52] and, for mature readers, Moyoco Anno's Happy Mania,[32][53] Yayoi Ogawa's Tramps Like Us,[54] and Ai Yazawa's Nana.[55][56] In another shōjo manga bildungsroman narrative device, the young heroine is transported to an alien place or time where she meets strangers and must survive on her own. Examples include Hagio Moto's They Were Eleven,[57] Kyoko Hikawa's From Far Away,[58] Yû Watase's Fushigi Yûgi: The Mysterious Play,[59] and Chiho Saito's The World Exists For Me.[60]

Yet another such device involves meeting unusual or strange people and beings, for example, Natsuki Takaya's Fruits Basket,[61] whose orphaned heroine Tohru must survive living in the woods in a house filled with people who can transform into the animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Harako Iida's Crescent Moon, heroine Mahiru meets a group of supernatural beings, finally to discover that she herself too has a supernatural ancestry when she and a young tengu demon fall in love.[62]

With the superheroines, shōjo manga continued to break away from neo-Confucianist norms of female meekness and obedience.[11][33] Naoko Takeuchi's Sailor Moon (Bishōjo Senshi Sēramūn: "Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon") is a sustained, 18-volume narrative about a group of young heroines simultaneously heroic and introspective, active and emotional, dutiful and ambitious.[63][64] The combination proved extremely successful, and Sailor Moon became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats.[63][65] Another example is CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth, whose three young heroines, Hikaru, Umi, and Fuu, are magically transported to the world of Cephiro to become armed magical warriors in the service of saving Cephiro from internal and external enemies.[66]

The superheroine subgenre also extensively developed the notion of teams (sentai) of girls working together,[67] like the Sailor Senshi in Sailor Moon, the Magic Knights in Magic Knight Rayearth, and the Mew Mew girls from Mia Ikumi's Tokyo Mew Mew.[68] By today, the superheroine narrative template has been widely used and parodied within the shōjo manga tradition (e.g., Nao Yazawa's Wedding Peach[69] and Hyper Rune by Tamayo Akiyama[70] and in bishōjo comedies like Kanan's Galaxy Angel.[71]

In the mid-1980s and thereafter, as girls who had read shōjo manga as teenagers matured and entered the job market, shōjo manga elaborated subgenres directed at women in their 20s and 30s.[44] This "Ladies Comic" or redisu-josei subgenre has dealt with themes of young adulthood: jobs, the emotions and problems of sexual intercourse, and friendships or love among women.[44][72][73][74][75]

Redisu manga retains many of the narrative stylistics of shōjo manga but has been drawn by and written for adult women.[76] Redisu manga and art has been often, but not always, sexually explicit, but sexuality is characteristically set into complex narratives of pleasure and erotic arousal combined with emotional risk.[11][72][73] Examples include Ryō Ramiya's Luminous Girls,[77] Masako Watanabe's Kinpeibai,[78] and the work of Shungicu Uchida.[79][80] Another subgenre of shōjo-redisu manga deals with emotional and sexual relationships among women (akogare and yuri),[81] in work by Erica Sakurazawa,[82] Ebine Yamaji,[83] and Chiho Saito.[84][85]

Other subgenres of shōjo-redisu manga have also developed, e.g., fashion (oshare) manga, like Ai Yazawa's Paradise Kiss[86][87] and horror-vampire-gothic manga, like Matsuri Hino's Vampire Knight,[88] Kaori Yuki's Cain Saga,[89] and Mitsukazu Mihara's DOLL,[90] which interact with street fashions, costume play ("cosplay"), J-Pop music, and goth subcultures in complex ways.[91][92][93]

By the start of the 21st century, manga for women and girls thus represented a broad spectrum of material for pre- and early teenagers to material for adult women.

Stylistic Innovation in Girls' and Women's Manga

A comprehensive history of stylistic novelty and innovation in shōjo and related manga has yet to be written in English. Nonetheless, certain trends are apparent.

One is the fluidity and dissolution of panel borders. Early shōjo manga, like Mahōtsukai Sarii and Ribon no Kishi, were composed of a regular series of rectangular panels with sharply defined borders, a style familiar to U.S. readers from newspaper comic strips and comic books.[94] By the end of the 1960s and the emergence of women-drawn shōjo manga, images were no longer separated by distinct borders, and what borders did exist were often non-rectangular.[95] Because borders are absent, the same character may appear more than once in the same image[96] thereby to create a sense not that the character has been reduplicated but remains the same no matter where she is. Time is not atomized into distinct frames, but becomes continuous, and psychological unity and continuity of apparent movement are created not by a regular succession of film-like images projected onto a rectangular panel or screen, but by showing different aspects of a unitary character as she stops to think, feel, or interact with her world. She remains the same person, because no borders or barriers separate her from her former self.

Another innovation was the extensive use of decorative motifs in the drawing. These include flowers, feathers, stars, sparkles, and swirls that cause a multiplicity of images to fuse into a single, coherent visual and psychological statement.

More to come.


References and Notes

Please do not change the reference formatting.
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Kern, Adam. 2006. Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyoshi of Edo Japan. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674022661.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Bouquillard, Jocelyn and Christophe Marquet. 2007. Hokusai: First Manga Master. New York: Abrams.
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 Schodt, Frederik L. 1986. Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics. Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 978-0870117527.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Murakami, Takashi, Curator. 2005. Museum Exhibition: "Little Boy: The Arts of Japan’s Exploding Subculture." Japan Society. New York, New York, April 9 to July 24, 2005.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Murakami, Takashi, Editor. 2005. Little Boy: The Arts of Japan’s Exploding Subculture. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10285-2 and NY:Japan Society. ISBN 0-913304-57-3.
  6. ↑ Benzon, William. 2007. "Review: Godzilla’s Children: Murakami Takes Manhattan." Mechademia: An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 2:283-287.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Tatsumi, Takayumi. 2006. Full Metal Apache: Transactions between Cyberpunk Japan and Avant-Pop America. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-3774-6.
  8. ↑ Star Wars manga: http://www.darkhorse.com/Search/Browse/Star+Wars+Manga/PpwNwkt8 (Accessed September 28, 2008).
  9. ↑ Condry, Ian. 2006. Hip-Hop Japan: Rap and the Path of Cultural Globalization. Durham, NC:Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-3892-0.
  10. ↑ Wong, Wendy Siuyi. 2006. "Globalizing manga: From Japan to Hong Kong and beyond." Mechademia: An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:23-45.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Schodt, Frederik L. 1996. Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1880656235.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Ito, Kinko. 2004. "Growing up Japanese reading manga." International Journal of Comic Art, 6:392-401.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Kern, Adam. 2007. "Symposium: Kibyoshi: The World's First Comicbook?" International Journal of Comic Art, 9:1-486.
  14. ↑ Eisner, Will. 1985. Comics & Sequential Art. Tamarac, Fl: Poorhouse Press. ISBN 0-9614728-0-2.}
  15. ↑ Torrance, Richard. 2005. "Literacy and literature in Osaka, 1890-1940." Journal of Japanese Studies, 31(1):27-60. Web version: http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v031/31.1torrance.html (Accessed September 16, 2007
  16. ↑ Inoue, Charles Shirō. 1996. "Pictocentrism—China as a source of Japanese modernity." In Sumie Jones, editor. 1996. Imaging/Reading Eros. Bloomington, IN: East Asian Studies Center, Indiana University. pp. 148-152. ISBN 0965328104.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Tchiei, Go. 1998. Shojo Manga: A Unique Genre. http://www.dnp.co.jp/museum/nmp/nmp_i/articles/manga/manga6-1.html (Accessed September 22, 2007.)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Japan: Profile of a Nation, Revised Edition" 1999. Tokyo: Kodansha. Article 9: page 695; article 21: page 697. ISBN 4-7700-2384-7.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 Schodt, Frederik L. 2007. The Astro Boy Essays: Osamu Tezuka, Mighty Atom, and the Manga/Anime Revolution. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1933330549.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 Gravett, Paul. 2004. Manga: Sixty Years of Japanese Comics. NY: Harper Design. ISBN 1-85669-391-0. p. 8.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Uno, Kathleen S. 1993. "The death of 'Good Wife, Wise Mother'." In: Andrew Gordon (editor) Postwar Japan as History. Berkeley, CA: University of California. pp. 293-322. ISBN 0520074750.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Ohinata, Masami 1995 "The mystique of motherhood: A key to understanding social change and family problems in Japan." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 199-211. ISBN 978-1558610941.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Yoshizumi, Kyoko 1995 "Marriage and family: Past and present." In: Kumiko Fujimura-Fanselow and Atsuko Kameda (editors) Japanese Women: New Feminist Perspectives on the Past, Present, and Future. New York: The Feminist Press at The City University of New York. pp. 183-197. ISBN 978-1558610941.
  24. ↑ Lee, William (2000). "From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0765605610.
  25. ↑ Kawai, Hayao. 1996. The Japanese Psyche: Major Motifs in the Fairy Tales of Japan. Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications. Chapter 7, pp. 125-142.
  26. ↑ Schodt, Frederik L. 1997. "Forward: The Wonderful World of Sazae-San." In: Machiko Hasegawa 1997. Sazae-san Volume 1. ***need pages*** Tokyo: Kodansha International. ISBN 978-4770020758.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Onoda, Natsu 2003. "Tezuka Osamu and the star system." International Journal of Comic Art, 5:161-194.
  28. ↑ Deep focus (live-action) cinematography gives effects closely related to animation techniques using the multiplanar camera; see Thomas Lamarre 2006. "The multiplanar image." Mechademia: An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:120-143.
  29. ↑ Such as the character Rock Home, who appears repeatedly in Tezuka's oeuvre; Onoda, op. cit., 185-189.
  30. ↑ Lee, William 2000. "From Sazae-san to Crayon Shin-Chan." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop!: Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0765605610.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Sanchez, Frank 1997-2003. "Hist 102: History of Manga." http://www.animeinfo.org/animeu/hist102.html. (Accessed on September 11, 2007.)
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 Thorn, Matt 2001. "Shôjo Manga—Something for the Girls." http://matt-thorn.com/shoujo_manga/japan_quarterly/index.html (Accessed September 22, 2007.)
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 33.4 Toku, Masami, editor. 2005. Shojo Manga: Girl Power! Chico, CA: Flume Press/California State University Press. ISBN 1-886226-10-5. See also http://www.csuchico.edu/pub/cs/spring_06/feature_03.html (Accessed September 22, 2007.)
  34. ↑ Sarii is the Japanese spelling and pronunciation of the English-language name "Sally." The word mahōtsukai literally means "magic operator," someone who can use and control magic. It does not mean "witch" or "magical girl" (which is mahō shōjo in Japanese), because tsukai is not a gendered word in Japanese. This use of an English-language name with a Japanese descriptive word is an example of transnationalism in Tatsumi's sense.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Yoshida, Kaori 2002. Evolution of Female Heroes: Carnival Mode of Gender Representation in Anime. http://journals2.iranscience.net:800/mcel.pacificu.edu/mcel.pacificu.edu/aspac/home/papers/scholars/yoshida/yoshida.php3 (Accessed September 22, 2007.)
  36. ↑ Melissa, Johnson June 27, 2006. "Bewitched by Magical Girls." http://www.fpsmagazine.com/feature/060627magicalgirls.php (Accessed September 22, 2007)
  37. ↑ Gravett, 2004, op. cit., pp.78-80.
  38. ↑ Lent, 2001, op. cit., pp. 9-10.
  39. ↑ Shamoon, Deborah. 2007. "Revolutionary romance: The Rose of Versailles and the transformation of shojo manga." Mechademia: An Annual Forum for Anime, Manga, and Fan Arts. 2:3-17.
  40. ↑ BB has not been translated into English, but French editions are available.
  41. ↑ Hagio Moto 1975/1996 "They Were Eleven." In: Matt Thorn (editor) Four Shojo Stories. San Francisco: Viz Media. ISBN 1569310556. Original story published 1975; U.S. edition 1996.
  42. ↑ Schodt, 1986, op. cit., p 88.
  43. ↑ McCloud, Scott. 1993. Understanding Comics. New York: Paradox Press. pp. 77-82.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 Ōgi, Fusami 2004. "Female subjectivity and shōjo (girls) manga (Japanese comics): shōjo in Ladies' Comics and Young Ladies' Comics." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(4):780-803.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Drazen, Patrick 2003. Anime Explosion!: the What? Why? & Wow! of Japanese Animation. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge.
  46. ↑ Izawa, Eri 2000. "The romantic, passionate Japanese in anime: A look at the hidden Japanese soul." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 138-153. ISBN 978-0765605610. Available at http://www.mit.edu/afs/athena.mit.edu/user/r/e/rei/WWW/manga-romanticism.html (Accessed September 23, 2007.)
  47. ↑ Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p. 14.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Literally, in German, bildungs = education and roman = novel, hence a novel about the education of the protagonist in "the ways of the world." Franco Moretti 1987. The Way of the World: The Bildungsroman in European Culture. London: Verso. ISBN 1859842984.
  49. ↑ "The transformation into a superhero is in fact an allegory of becoming an adult." From Graillat, Ludovic 2006-2007. "America vs. Japan: the Influence of American Comics on Manga." Refractory: A Journal of Entertainment Media, volume 10. http://www.refractory.unimelb.edu.au/journalissues/vol10/graillat.html (Accessed September 23, 2007.)
  50. ↑ For Peach Girl, see http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1041 (Accessed September 26, 2007.
  51. ↑ Beveridge, Chris 2007. "Peach Girl Vol #1." http://www.animeondvd.com/reviews2/disc_reviews/6116.php (Accessed September 26, 2007.)
  52. ↑ For Mars, see http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1029 (Accessed September 26, 2007.)
  53. ↑ For Happy Mania, see http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1115 (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  54. ↑ For Tramps Like Us, see http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=3877 (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  55. ↑ Aoki, Deb "Nana by Ai Yazawa - Series Profile and Story Summary." http://manga.about.com/od/mangatitlesaz/p/nanaprofile.htm (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  56. ↑ Zac Bertschy 2005. "NANA G.novel 1." http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/review/nana-gn-1 (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  57. ↑ Randall, Bill "Three by Moto Hagio." http://www.tcj.com/252/e_hagio.html (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  58. ↑ King, Patrick 2005. "From Far Away Vol. 2." http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/2005/03/review/06.php (Accessed September 26, 2007.)
  59. ↑ For Fushigi Yûgi, see http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1539 (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  60. ↑ For The World Exists for Me, see http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1477/TheWorldExistsforMe/2.html (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  61. ↑ For Fruits Basket see http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1194/FruitsBasket/1.html (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  62. ↑ For Crescent Moon see http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1244 (Accessed September 26, 2007).
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Allison, Anne 2000. "Sailor Moon: Japanese superheroes for global girls." In: Timothy J. Craig (editor) Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 259-278. ISBN 978-0765605610.
  64. ↑ Grigsby, Mary 1999 "The social production of gender as reflected in two Japanese culture industry products: Sailormoon and Crayon Shinchan." In: John A. Lent, editor Themes and Issues in Asian Cartooning: Cute, Cheap, Mad, and Sexy. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. pp. 183-210. ISBN 0879727802.
  65. ↑ Schodt, 1996, op. cit., p 92.
  66. ↑ For Magic Knight Rayearth see http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=1565 and http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1017 (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  67. ↑ Poitras, Gilles 2001. Anime Essentials: Everything a Fan Needs to Know. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge. ISBN 1880656531.
  68. ↑ For Tokyo Mew Mew see http://www.tokyopop.com/shop/1114/TokyoMewMew (Accessed September 26, 2007).
  69. ↑ For Wedding Peach" see http://www.viz.com/products/products.php?series_id=198 (Accessed September 26, 2007).
  70. ↑ For Hyper Rune see http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/right-turn-only/2004-11-20 (Accessed September 26, 2007).
  71. ↑ For Galaxy Angel see http://www.broccolibooks.com/books/ga/ga_index.htm (Accessed September 26, 2007).
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 Ito, Kinko 2002. "The world of Japanese 'Ladies Comics': From romantic fantasy to lustful perversion." Journal of Popular Culture, 36(1):68-85.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Ito, Kinko 2003. "Japanese Ladies' Comics as agents of socialization: The lessons they teach." International Journal of Comic Art, 5(2):425-436.
  74. ↑ Jones, Gretchen 2002. "'Ladies' Comics': Japan's not-so-underground market in pornography for women." U.S.-Japan Women's Journal (English Supplement), Number 22, pp. 3-31.
  75. ↑ Shamoon, Deborah. 2004. "Office slut and rebel flowers: The pleasures of Japanese pornographic comics for women." In: Linda Williams (editor) Porn Studies. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. pp. 77-103. ISBN 0822333120.
  76. ↑ Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp 124-129.
  77. ↑ Ryō Ramiya (no date) "Luminous Girls." Tokyo: France Shoin Comic House. ISBN 4829682019.
  78. ↑ Toku, 2005, op. cit., p. 59.
  79. ↑ Schodt, 1996, op. cit., pp. 173-177.
  80. ↑ Shamoon, Deborah 2003. Focalization and narrative voice in the novels and comics of Uchida Shungicu." International Journal of Comic Art, 5:147-160.
  81. ↑ Bando, Kishiji Shoujo yuri manga guide. http://www.yuricon.org/essays/symg.html (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  82. ↑ For Erica Sakurazawa see http://www.animefringe.com/magazine/2003/12/reviews/06/ (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  83. ↑ For Ebine Yamaji see "Fan translations of Ebine Yamaji's yuri manga." http://gaycomicslist.free.fr/pages/blogarch.php?month=2006-10 (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  84. ↑ Kotani, Mari 2006. "Metamorphosis of the Japanese girl: The girl, the hyper-girl, and the battling beauty." Mechademia, An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:162-169.
  85. ↑ Perper, Timothy & Martha Cornog 2006. "In the sound of the bells: Freedom and revolution in Revolutionary Girl Utena." Mechademia, An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:183-186.
  86. ↑ Masanao, Amano 2004. Manga Design. Koln, Germany: Taschen GMBH. pp. 526-529. ISBN 3822825913.
  87. ↑ For Paradise Kiss see http://www.tokyopop.com/product/1044 (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  88. ↑ For Vampire Knight see http://www.shojobeat.com/manga/vk/ (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  89. ↑ For Cain see http://www.shojobeat.com/manga/gc/bio.php (Accessed September 26, 2007)
  90. ↑ For DOLL see http://www.tokyopop.com/shop/1277/DollSoftcover/1.html (Accessed November 14, 2007)
  91. ↑ Shoichi Aoki. 2001. Fruits. New York: Phaidon Press. ISBN 0714840831.
  92. ↑ Winge, Theresa 2006. "Costuming the imagination: Origins of anime and manga cosplay." Mechademia: An Academic Forum for Anime, Manga, and the Fan Arts, 1:65-76.
  93. ↑ Macias, Patrick, Izumi Evers and Kazumi Nonaka 2004. Japanese Schoolgirl Inferno: Tokyo Teen Fashion Subculture Handbook. San Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books. ISBN 9780811856904.
  94. ↑ Cite Sarii book and Ribon book; also McCloud and Cohn?
  95. ↑ BeruBara; Shigematsu and Shiokawa.
  96. ↑ Like the stage setting of the shrine; Schodt


Comments and Suggestions

This page is for writing the history manga article starting from the Wikipedia article most of which I wrote and referenced. It needs some major work, including the addition of an entirely new section on manga before WW2 (Meiji and Tokugawa periods, including kibyōshi). The text is my own, stripped-down, de-Wikified, and rewritten version of the original article. Timothy Perper 10:25, 27 September 2008 (CDT)

From John Stephenson, Talk:Manga:

if you are the sole author of all the material you import from Wikipedia, then the fact that it originally appeared over there is irrelevant - it can appear on Citizendium with no credit to Wikipedia and under the CZ creative commons licence rather than the Wikipedia one. The only thing you have to do, apart from perhaps writing more to cover gaps left by removing Wikipedians' contributions, is put the {{WPauthor}} tag at the top of the Talk page, below {{subpages}}, including a declaration that the material is yours. Something like: {{WPauthor|WP credit does not apply - material on WP written by me|[[User:Timothy Perper|Timothy Perper]] 04:03, 28 September 2008 (CDT)}}In cases of articles written on WP by other people, you can import them as well, but there must always be a credit to Wikipedia (by checking the 'Content is from Wikipedia?' box) and you have to commit to substantively improving the article, as otherwise it would be a candidate for deletion. John Stephenson 23:29, 27 September 2008 (CDT)

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