The Troubles (Ireland)
The Troubles (1969-1997) was the name given to a violent religious-political conflict that was centred on Northern Ireland, but also saw violence in the Republic of Ireland, Great Britain and mainland Europe. The origins of the Troubles can be traced back variously to several different periods in history, depending on perspective and context.
After a Home Rule bill was delayed due to the outbreak of World War I, governmental jurisdiction in Ireland was split into two regions: a Northern parliament comprising six counties of Ireland in the north-east of the island, and a Southern parliament comprising the a larger twenty-six county area. The nature of this division in legislation ensured a majority of Protestants largely loyal to the union looked after interests in the Northern parliament, while a majority of Roman Catholics, who had often historically been less loyal to the union, looked after interests in Southern parliament.
Origins
The history leading to The Troubles, is more or less synonymous with the history of Ireland itself. Causes for it are sometimes coloured by viewpoints, though certainly there had been conflict between the peoples of the island for as far back as history has been recorded. Due to it's location on the western fringe of Europe, and the expansion of different nations and tribes, Ireland had been invaded and settled by various Celts, then specifically by Gaels, and by Scandinavians, Scots, (Anglo-)Normans and English, each to various degrees. The Gaelic settlement was by far the most complete in terms of cultural dominance, but the English impositions in much later years essentially reversed this to a large degree.
Today it is often the case that nationalists blame The Troubles on the invitation of Anglo-Normans to Ireland by the FitzGeralds to help with a local conflict in the 12th century, calling it an English invasion. Blame is also levelled at a sharp rise in the number of settlers from Scotland - the vast majority of whom were Protestant - in the 17th century, in a period known as the Plantation of Ulster.
In the context of the most recent period of violence and conflict, The Troubles emerged as a result of perceived socio-economic inequalities between the two communities of Northern Ireland. Successive Unionist governments, and the imposition of Direct Rule that followed the suspension of the devolved government, failed to resolve suspicions that of deep-rooted institutional, governmental discrimination directed at the Roman Catholic community.
Initial concerns of a fledgling civil rights movement in Northern Ireland highlighted the plight of Northern Ireland's itenerant community. The right to vote in local elections was restricted to property-owning ratepayers, and the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Movement (NICRA) adopted this concern also. Many people saw this as benefiting presumed wealthier Protestants, over a smaller and less privileged Roman Catholic population. Those who owned properties in more than one electoral ward could have multiple votes, to a maximum of six. Due to the mobilisation of the police to combat what became regular rioting, police harassment became a fact of life for some in certain Catholic areas; the fact that the few Nationalist or Republican members of parliament in Westminster refused to recognise the partition of the island further alienated the community.[1]
Civil Rights movement
The Civil Rights movement began in the mid 1960's. The original organisation, The Campaign for Social Justice, adopted the tactics of a pressure group, writing pamphlets and sending letters to MPs in Stormont and Westminster complaining of alleged discrimination against Catholics in regard to social housing, employment and Gerrymandering. Inspired by the U.S. Civil Rights Movement, NICRA was formed in January 1967. The group aimed to bring anti-Catholic legislation to an end and bring equality to all Catholics resident in Northern Ireland.
In mid 1968, NICRA began to organise street demonstrations to argue their case for equality. The organisation had failed to do much in the first eighteen months of its existence; the Unionist government was largely unresponsive to its complaints. It was encouraged by successful demonstrations in Paris, London and most importantly in the United States. Initial demonstrations were peaceful and had been supported by a small presence of Protestants and unionists, but many Unionists came to distrust the organisation as many believed that they were a cover for Republicans who wanted to destroy the Northern Ireland government and its state. A march organised for Derry on 5th October 1968 was banned, but around 400 people took part nonetheless. The Royal Ulster Constabulary broke the march up with batons. This incident had been filmed and angered Nationalists to the extent that the next march on the same route attracted 10,000 demonstrators.
The Battle of the Bogside in a Catholic part of Derry drew international condemnation of the Unionist government and eventually led to its suspension by Westminster and the imposition of direct rule. The riot, which took place between August 12-14th 1969, was a result of the Apprentice Boy's of Derry attempting to march past the Catholic Bogside part of Derry. Although the police attempted to disperse the Catholic rioters, they could not enter the Bogside area as the Nationalists were throwing stones and petrol bombs at the police. Events were building around them however, as Irish Taoiseach Jack Lynch made a dramatic television appearance. He condemned the Unionist government and sent Irish troops to the border, where field hospitals were established. After a standoff that lasted a few days, the British army were called in, and the Nationalists called an end to their fight. Leaders who would prove to be big players in the Civil Rights Movement emerged from the 'battle': Bernadette Devlin McAliskey and Eamon McCabe proved themselves to be of great ability in the organisational aspects of the conflict. Martin McGuiness (currently Northern Ireland's second Minister) was one of the young men throwing stones and petrol bombs at the police forces. He would later become an important IRA bomber and eventually spend some time in prison as a result of his actions.
Political movements
Unionism
Unionists represented the Protestant element, and had both their fringe and moderate factions. Ian Paisley and Basil Brooke represented the former while Terence O'Neill, former prime minister of Northern Ireland, represented the latter.
Nationalism
Nationalists represented the Catholic element and were considered the moderate side of Catholic politics during the Troubles. With the civil rights movement came the Social Democratic and Labour Party of Northern Ireland (SDLP). The SDLP continued to campaign for civil rights during the Troubles, and abandoned the Republican policy of abstentionism from both Stormont and Westminster, serving in the 1974 powersharing executive. They offered a path for moderate, Constitutional Nationalists to bring about change in a non-violent manner. The SDLP were until recently the most popular Nationalist party in Northern Ireland.
Republicanism
Republicans represented the most extreme wing of the Catholic community. They wanted complete independance from the UK and their principal party, Sinn Féin, followed a policy of abstention for both Stormont and Westminster. The party has slowly become more moderate in the last decade, accepting the new police service (the Police Service of Northern Ireland, which was set up following the Good Friday Agreement to replace the Royal Ulster Constabulary) and agreeing to go into government with the Democratic Unionist Party.
Conciliatory
There were frequent peace movements in Northern Ireland during the Troubles, representing both sides of the community. Gordon Wilson, a Methodist, gave an interview to the BBC on the evening of his daughter's death from a bomb in Enisskillen, County Fermanagh in 1987. In an emotional display he publicly forgave the men that had killed his daughter, and pleaded with Loyalists not to avenge her death. At a time when the Troubles was becoming more intensive, Wilson became an international symbol of peace.
Other grassroots organisations, such as the Alliance Party achieved some minor electoral successes. The Peace process was masterminded by the leaders of the moderate SDLP (John Hume) and Ulster Unionist Party (David Trimble), who went on to share a Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts. The SDLP, under the leadership of the universally admired John Hume, would succesfully enter into a dialogue with Sinn Féin and its leader, Gerry Adams. Often it would be acts of selflessness from individual Ulster men and women on both sides of the community throughout the province that would ultimately define the nature of the peace process.
See also
Bibliography
- Beggan, Dominic M. "State Repression and Political Violence: Insurgency in Northern Ireland." International Journal on World Peace. (2006) 23#4 pp 61+ online edition at Questia
- Bell, J. Bowyer. The Irish Troubles: A Generation of Violence, 1967-1992. 1993
- Tonge, John. Northern Ireland Conflict and Change. (2nd ed. 2002)