Korean War

The Korean War (1950-53) was a major Cold War military clash fought up and down the peninsula of Korea, finally leading to a stalemate in 1950 that restored the boundaries to nearly what they were at the start, along the 38th parallel. The Communist states of North Korea, China and the Soviet Union were arrayed against South Korea, supported by the United States and a multinational United Nations force. The war began with an invasion by North Korea in June 1950, followed by unexpected American and UN entry. North Korean forces had pushed the South Koreans and Americans back into a small perimeter when, in September 1950, an amphibious landing at Inchon turned the tide. The North Korean army disintegrated as the allies moved north, with UN approval, to unify the country. Unexpectedly the Chinese then sent in large numbers of infantry, and in the bitter cold of November-January 1950-51 pushed the UN forces out of the north. Communist supply lines were fragile, especially in the face of heavy American bombing, so the lines stabilized close to the 38th parallel in 1951. Two more years of static warfare followed, with the issue of returning reluctant Communist prisoners of war held by the UN the major sticking point. Finally an armistice was reached in summer 1953; the prisoners were exchanged and fighting ended in an uneasy truce that continues into 2008.

The war was limited in size and scope but casualties were heavy on both sides. In the U.S. political reverberations helped cause the fall of the Truman administration and his Democratic party in the landslide 1952 election of General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican candidate who promised to end the war. For Americans and Chinese it is a "forgotten war", neglected on the timeline between the twin cataclysms of World War II and Vietnam. For the Koreans it is the central event of their modern history, and efforts to reunify the land continue.

Background

Historically an independent nation, Korea had been seized by Japan in 1910 and cruelly treated as a colony. The Koreans came to hate the Japanese violently, and were overjoyed at their liberation by Soviet and American soldiers in September, 1945. The division of Korea was set at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, when Joseph Stalin for the Soviet Union and Franklin D. Roosevelt for the U.S. agreed to divide the Japanese-controlled Korean peninsula at the 38th parallel. The Korean people wanted to throw off the Japanese and become united, but the second goal was only vaguely promised at Yalta. The assumption was that postwar amity between the USSR and US would lead to a reasonable solution at some indefinite future time. As the Cold War started, the two superpowers sponsored rival government, Communist in the North and anti-communist in the South. Given the fierce determination of Koreans to unite their homeland, a civil war was inevitable.

In the North, Kim Il Sung, leader of the Korean Communist party, came to power in 1945. His ruthless totalitarian regime crushed all opposition and promoted guerrilla warfare in the south.

Ruling the south was a right-wing government headed by Syngman Rhee, who had been converted to Christianity during his exile, and then earned a PhD in theology from Princeton. Although Rhee's authoritarian regime crushed pro-Communist uprisings, he did allow the emergence of a civil society in the south. That is, there were multiple independent sources of thought and power, like corporations, local businesses, universities and churches, in contrast to the north where the Communist party controlled all activity whatever, down to the neighborhood level.

Kim sought support from his two northern neighbors, Mao's China and Stalin's Soviet Union. At the time Washington considered both Mao and Kim to be Stalin's puppets; historians now see them as largely independent actors. However, all were committed to their own versions of aggressive, anti- western Marxist-Leninism. Both Mao and Stalin were committed to revolution in Asia, and both concluded after America's failure to send troops into the Chinese Civil War that Washington would ignore an invasion of South Korea. Mao advised North Korean leaders that "solely military means are required to unify Korea. As regards the Americans, there is no need to be afraid of them. The Americans will not enter a third world war for such a small country.".

Military strengths

Most of the 20 million Koreans in the South, and the 10 million in the North, were subsistence farmers living in the western half of the peninsula. Travel was a chore in the west (except on the good railroad system), and quite difficult in the mountainous east. The industrial level was low and the people were extremely poor. Nevertheless Kim built a powerful military machine in the North.

The US Army considered the peninsula indefensible and, in line with severe budget restraints, removed its soldiers in 1949. It left small arms and ammunition behind for ROK, the new South Korean army, but no tanks, no warplanes and no medium or heavy artillery. The North Koreans were much better armed, having leftover Japanese weapons, and second-hand equipment sold them by Moscow. Frustrated that internal subversion had not toppled the anticommunist government in Seoul, Kim decided to invade.

North Korea invades

Kim ordered his NKPA (North Korean People's Army) to invade on June 25, 1950. Spearheading 9 divisions with 80,000 men were elite units with 100-150 excellent Soviet T-34 battle tanks, backed up by 100 aircraft. The South Koreans had only 100,000 soldiers (65,000 in combat roles) and little equipment. Moscow's military experts figured that the North had a 2:1 advantage over the South in troops, 2:1 in artillery; 7:1 in machine guns; 6.5:1 in tanks; and 6:1 in aircraft--ratios quite adequate for a successful conquest if South Korea received no American help.

The ROK generals were mediocre political appointees; it lost half its combat effectiveness quickly. The NKPA blitzkrieg burst through the four ROK divisions along the border, captured the capital of Seoul on the third day, and kept hurtling south. The North's generals lost communications with front line units because of inexperience and because they were moving unexpectedly fast. Kim expected that Koreans in the south would welcome his invaders and the Seoul regime would vanish overnight. He was wrong--the southerners resisted invasion as best they could, fled to regroup, and supported their government even as the invaders systematically identified and executed anti-communists. Kim, intent on unifying Korea on a Communist basis with himself in charge, apparently ignored the likelihood of UN condemnation and the possibility of American intervention--for example, he made few diplomatic overtures and did not bother to set up anti-aircraft defenses. The North Korean general staff quickly lost control of the battle, even though it was winning; (because its Russian advisors had done a poor job in establishing a command and communication system). The Communist divisions and regiments fought with enthusiasm, but made poor use of their artillery and tanks. These weaknesses would prove fatal once they opposed a real army.

U.S. and UN entry

President Harry S. Truman immediately asked General Douglas MacArthur, commander of American forces in Japan, Forces in the Far East, for his evaluation. MacArthur flew to South Korea on June 27. The same day Truman ordered MacArthur to provide air and naval support. MacArthur reported that the ROK (South Korean) forces were too weak to hold.

Truman was as surprised as everyone else but, remembering the dithering in the late 1930s that encouraged Hitler, he moved fast. Although there were no treaties involved, and the Pentagon advised against the use of ground forces, he declared that American ground soldiers would fight to save South Korea. He called it a "police action" and legally it was not a war. Truman decided not to ask Congress for a declaration of war or any other official approval--a political blunder that would later cost him dearly. He did go to the United Nations. The Soviet foreign ministry wanted to veto UN intervention, but Stalin--probably astonished that the US decided to resist--rejected the advice and insisted his delegate not take part in the Security Council decision. "We are not ready to fight," Stalin exclaimed. Officially the USSR remained neutral throughout the war. The Security Council then authorized a UN defense force to repel North Korean aggression. In the entire war the U.S. provided 50% of land, 86% of naval and 93% of UN air power; ROK forces came next, followed far behind by Britain, Turkey, Canada, Australia and ten other nations. Truman vetoed MacArthur's recommendation to use Nationalist Chinese troops and they played no role in the war. No one (especially not the Japanese) wanted an Imperial Japanese Army marching in Korea and so Japan's role was as a supplier and staging base, a function that helped reinvigorate the Japanese economy.

The containment policy of the Truman administration called for a military response to Communist military invasion, no matter how difficult conditions were. The American entry surprised the Communists; North Korea realized it was unequipped to handle the Americans.

On July 19, Truman asked Congress for an emergency defense appropriation of $11 billion. Truman, like Roosevelt before him in 1940, wanted 50,000 war planes built a year. Congress appropriated $8 billion for aircraft production for 1951.

Inchon landing

On September 15, 1950, General MacArthur led a victorious assault on the port of Inchon on the west coast of South Korea, just west of the capital city. This victory finally broke the momentum of the North, which had maintained the upper hand in combat during July and August. The Americans routed the enemy then marched east into Seoul, subduing the invaders by September 27. The Americans had the North Koreans on the run. The war looked set to come to a quick end as the Communists were retreating back above the 38th parallel. But President Truman made a fateful decision which led to the war dragging on for two more years. He gave MacArthur orders to give chase. Chairman Mao of Communist China had warned the U.S. not to travel north of the 38th parallel, yet the American forces invaded North Korea anyway on October 7. Subsequently Chairman Mao sent Chinese troops into North Korea to help defend its Communist ally against the invading Westerners. By the end of November 300,000 Chinese troops were in combat. The Americans, in tandem with UN Forces, saw heavy fighting over the next few months. Back in America, more than a few government officials as well as journalists wondered if this was the beginning of World War III. On December 16, 1950, President Truman declared a National Emergency, warning the American people, “The increasing menace of the forces of communist aggression requires that the national defense of the United States be strengthened as quickly as possible.”

Rollback or containment?

The initial objective of Truman and his top advisor Secretary of State Dean Acheson was to repel the North Korean invasion, restore the Rhee regime, and contain Communism along the 38th parallel. Containment was the administration's main Cold War policy. However, after victory at Inchon, Truman and Acheson changed to "rollback" --that is expelling all Communist forces and unifying the peninsula, with elections to be held by the UN. In the State Department George F. Kennan and his Policy Planning Staff insisted that even though the USSR was behind the war, it was nevertheless a civil conflict and containment policy did not apply; Kennan was ignored. And UN forces raced north across the 38th, with official UN approval. MacArthur previously had suggested that Korea had little strategic importance; after Inchon he advocated unifying Korea through annihilating the North Korean army. After Chinese intervention Truman and Acheson reverted to a containment position, arguing rollback was now too expensive. However in early 1951, MacArthur proposed to continue the rollback strategy by cutting off Chinese reinforcements (by bombing their bases north of the Yalu River, inside China), and by using fresh soldiers on offer from the anti-Communist Chinese government in Taiwan. Truman, Acheson and the Joint Chiefs of Staff rejected this plan as "the wrong war" -- that is, the real war was against the Soviets--and fired MacArthur when he kept up his advocacy.

China's entry

As early as July 5, 1950, after American forces started pouring in, Stalin recommended to Chinese prime minister Zhou Enlai that China be ready to intervene with 9 divisions, and promised Soviet air support.

Stalemate

The war dragged on. General MacArthur was fired on April 11, 1951, leading to a political firestorm. General Matthew B. Ridgway assumed command of the UN forces in the Far East and General James A. Van Fleet of the Eighth Army in Korea. America was destined for two more years of combat and futile negotiations. U.S. defense budget for 1951 was $48.3 billion; for 1952, $62.2 billion; for 1953, $53.2 billion. In 1952 Truman, after losing the New Hampshire primary, ended his reelection campaign. General Dwight D. Eisenhower defeated the anti-war isolationist Robert A. Taft for the Republican nomination, and electrified the country by promising, "I shall go to Korea," -- that is he would end the war. In his farewell address on January 15, 1953, Truman said:

"In Korea our men are fighting as valiantly as Americans have ever fought—because they know they are fighting in the same cause of freedom in which Americans have stood ever since the beginning of the Republic. . . . Now, once in a while I get a letter from some impatient person asking, Why don’t we get it over with? Why don’t we issue an ultimatum—make all-out war, drop the atomic bomb? For most Americans, the answer is quite simple: we are not made that way. We are a moral people. Peace is our goal, with justice and freedom."

Eisenhower, however, threatened to use nuclear weapons unless the Chinese came to terms, which they did. An armistice was signed by North Korea, the United States, and China on July 27, 1953.

33,629 American soldiers were killed in action on the battlefield in the Korean War, mostly by Chinese—not North Korean—divisions. 110,000 Americans were wounded or missing-in-action. The UN forces lost 60,371. The U.S. Army estimate of enemy killed exceeded one million, the majority Chinese troops. The war-torn landscape of the Korean peninsula, after three years of ground fighting and saturation bombardment by American air power, was in ruins.

Bibliography

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Overview and reference

• Edwards, Paul M. The A to Z of the Korean War. (2005). 305 pp. historical dictionary
• Halliday, Jon and Bruce Cumings. Korea: The Unknown War (1988); hostile to US & ROK; well illustrated
• Heller, Francis H. ed. The Korean War (1977)
• Kaufman, Burton I. The Korean War (1986)
• Malkasian, Carter. The Korean War (Essential Histories) (2001), brief summary excerpt and text search
• Matray, James I. Historical Dictionary of the Korean War (1991), good reference
• Millett, Allan R. The War for Korea, 1945-1950: A House Burning (2005), major history by leading scholar excerpt and text search
• Summers, Harry G. Korean War Almanac (1990), not fully reliable
• Tucker, Spencer C. et al. Encyclopedia of the Korean War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2002) the best reference source
• Varhola, Michael J. Fire and Ice: The Korean War, 1950-1953, (2000) excerpt and text search

Koreas

• Cumings, Bruce. The Origins of the Korean War (2 vol 1981, 1990), sympathetic to North Korea; stresses civil war aspects
• Lankov, Andrei, and A. N. Lankov, From Stalin to Kim Il Sung: The Formation of North Korea 1945-1960 (2002) excerpt and text search</ref>

Diplomacy and national policy

• Dingman, Roger. "Atomic Diplomacy During the Korean War." International Security 13 (1988-89)
• Foot, Rosemary. The Wrong War: American Policy and the Dimensions of the Korean Conflict, 1950-1953 (1985)
• Goncharov, Sergei, John Lewis, and Litai Xue. Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War (1993)
• Hu, Wanli. "Mao's American Strategy and the Korean War." PhD dissertation U. of Massachusetts 2005. 247 pp. DAI 2005 66(2): 716-717-A. DA3163675 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
• Jian, Chen. China's Road to the Korean War (1995) excerpt and text search
• Kaufman, Burton I. The Korean War: Challenges In Crisis, Credibility And Command (1996)
• Malkasian, Carter. Toward a Better Understanding of Attrition: the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Journal of Military History 2004 68(3): 911-942. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: Project Muse
• Matray, James I. "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self-Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," The Journal of American History, Vol. 66, No. 2 (Sep., 1979), pp. 314-333 in JSTOR
• Shen, Zhihua. "Sino-Soviet Relations and the Origins of the Korean War: Stalin's Strategic Goals in the Far East," Journal of Cold War Studies Volume 2, Number 2, Spring 2000, pp. 44-68 in Project Muse
• Stairs, Denis. The Diplomacy of Constraint: Canada, the Korean War, and the United States (1974), esp ch 4 on containing America's militarism
• Stueck, William. Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History (2004) excerpt and text search
• Stueck, William. The Korean War (1997) excerpt and text search
• Stueck, William, ed. The Korean War in World History (2004) excerpt and text search
• Whiting, Allen. China Crosses the Yalu (1960), out of date
• Wilkinson, Mark F., ed. The Korean War at Fifty: International Perspectives. (2004). 297 pp.

Domestic politics

• Casey, Steven. Selling the Korean War: Propaganda, Politics, and Public Opinion in the United States, 1950-1953 (2008)
• Donnelly, William M. "'The Best Army That Can Be Put in the Field in the Circumstances': the U.S. Army, July 1951-July 1953." Journal of Military History 2007 71(3): 809-847. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: Ebsco

Intelligence

• Knight, Peter G. "'MacArthur's Eyes': Reassessing Military Intelligence Operations in the Forgotten War, June 1950-April 1951." PhD dissertation Ohio State U. 2006. 443 pp. DAI 2007 67(7): 2722-A. DA3226313 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses

                                                                               ===Biographies and memoirs===

• Domes, Juergen, Peng Teh-huai (1985), Chinese commander
• James, D. Clayton. Years of MacArthur vol 3, 1945-64 (1985), the major scholarly biography
• Ridgway, Matthew B. The Korean War (1986) memoir by US ground commander excerpt and text search

Ground operations

• Appleman, Roy E. South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (1961); official US Army history of fighting in 1950 online edition
• Appleman, Roy E.. East of Chosin: Entrapment and Breakout in Korea (1987); Escaping the Trap: The U.S. Army in Northeast Korea, 1950 (1987) excerpt and text search; Disaster in Korea: The Chinese Confront MacArthur (1989); Ridgway Duels for Korea (1990). narrative and analysis of combat operations
• Blair, Clay. The Forgotten War (1988), revisionist study that attacks senior American officials
• Farrar-Hockley, General Sir Anthony. The British Part in the Korean War, HMSO, (1995), 528 pp, official British history ISBN 0-11-630962-8
• Flint, Roy K. "Task Force Smith and the 24th Division." in Charles E. Heller and William A. Stofft eds. America's First Battles: 1776-1965 (1986), 266-99. A wide-ranging look at the Army and its weak fighting ability in 1950.
• Halberstam, David. The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War, (2007), oral histories excerpt and text search
• Hamburger, Kenneth E. Leadership in the Crucible: The Korean War Battles of Twin Tunnels and Chipyong-Ni. (2003). 257 pp. excerpt and text search
• Hermes, Walter G. Truce Tent and Fighting Front (1966) Official US Army history of 1951-53, including combat and truce talks. online edititom
• Hastings, Max. The Korean War (1987), 416pp; British perspective excerpt and text search
• Johnston, William. A War of Patrols: Canadian Army Operations in Korea (2003).
• Knox, Donald. The Korean War, An Oral History (1985) excerpt and text search
• Korea Institute of Military History. The Korean War (3 vol 2000); highly detailed narrative; official South Korean history excerpt and text search
• Marshall, S.L.A. The River and the Gauntlet: Defeat of the Eighth Army by the Chinese Communist Forces, November, 1950 in the Battle of Chongchon River, Korea (1953) based on after-action intervierws
• Millett, Allan R. Their War for Korea: American, Asian, and European Combatants and Civilians, 1945–1953. (2003). 310 pp. excerpt and text search
• Montross, Lynn et al., History of U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950–1953, 5 vols. (1954–72),
• Mossman, Billy C. Ebb and Flow: November 1950 - July 1951 (1990), good official US Army history online edition
• Russ, Martin. Breakout: The Chosin Reservoir Campaign, Korea 1950 (2000), 464 pages, ISBN 0-14-029259-4 excerpt and text search
• Schnabel, James W. U.S. Army in the Korean War: Policy and Directions: The First Year (1972), official US Army history, focused on Pentagon online edition
• Stolfi, Russel H. S. "A Critique of Pure Success: Inchon Revisited, Revised, and Contrasted." Journal of Military History 2004 68(2): 505-525. Issn: 0899-3718 Fulltext: Project Muse argues Germans did a better job in a comparable campaign in the Baltic in 1941

Air and sea operations; logistics

• Futrell, Robert Frank et al. The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950-1953 (GPO, 1961), the best military analysis
• Hallion, Richard. The Naval Air War in Korea (1986)
• Huston, James A. Guns and Butter, Powder and Rice: U.S. Army Logistics in the Korean War (1989)
• Werrell, Kenneth P. Sabres over MiG Alley: The F-86 and the Battle for Air Superiority in Korea. (2005). 318 pp.

Soldiers, prisoners, medical

• Bardbury, William C. et al. Mass Behavior in Battle and Captivity: The Communist Soldier in the Korean War (1968)
• Biderman, Albert D. March to Calumny (1963), best on US POWs; rebuts charges (made by Eugene Kinkead) that 1/3 collaborated
• Cowdrey, Albert E. The Medics' War (GPO, 1987)
• Hanson, Thomas E. "America's First Cold War Army: Combat Readiness in the Eighth US Army, 1949-1950." PhD dissertation Ohio State U. 2006. 224 pp. DAI 2007 67(7): 2721-A. DA3226301 in ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
• Witt, Linda, et al. A Defense Weapon Known to Be of Value: Service Women of the Korean War Era. (2005). 320 pp.
• Wubben, H. H. "American Prisoners of War in Korea." American Quarterly 22 (1970)

Historiography

• Armstrong, Charles K. "Divided Korea at Sixty." History Compass 2005 3(Asia). Issn: 1478-0542 Fulltext: [[Blackwell Synergy] considers how Korea became divided; the causes and conduct of the Korean War; the reasons for Korea's continued division; and in particular the nature and survivability of the North Korean regime.
• Millett, Allan R. "A reader's guide to the Korean War," The Journal of Military History Jul 1997 Vol. 61 No. 3; pp. 583+, summarizes the main books and arguments

Fiction, film and memory

• Diffrient, David Scott. "'Military Enlightenment' for the Masses: Generic and Cultural Intermixing in South Korea's Golden Age War Films," Cinema Journal 45, Number 1, Fall 2005, pp. 22-49 in Project Muse
• Lentz, Robert J. Korean War Filmography: 91 English Language Features through 2000. (2003). 496 pp.
• McCann, David R. "Our Forgotten War: The Korean War in Korean and American Popular Culture," in Philip West, Steven I. Levine, and Jackie Hiltz, eds., America's Wars in Asia: A Cultural Approach to History and Memory (1998)

Primary sources

• Cold War International History Project Virtual Archive 2.0: The Korean War
• Peters, Richard and Li, Xiaobing, eds. Voices from the Korean War: Personal Stories of American, Korean, and Chinese Soldiers. (2004). 291 pp.

External links

• Bibliography

Notes

• US Navy photos (not copyright)

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