Religion
A religion is an apparently-universal human social phenomenon involving beliefs, values, practices, and group identity. Scholars typically characterize religion as concerned with the supernatural; the sacred; or with subjects of ultimate concern (such as birth and death). Elements which are often associated with "religion" include:
- a distinctive worldview or belief-system
- group identity
- social institutions
- rituals
- rules or behavioral expectations
- a focus on the supernatural
Some religions are implicit, and consist of inherited ancestral traditions (a "way of life"). Others are organized, and promote themselves in conscious contrast to alternatives within the wider society. We may also distinguish between personal religious beliefs and experiences, and those which may be socially prescribed.
In the case of religions which are divided into sects or denominations, the word "religion" is generally reserved for the most fundamental level of spiritual identity. For example, Methodists generally do not describe Methodism as a "religion" in its own right, but as a denomination within the religion of Christianity. Sikhs, however, insist that they are a "religion," and not, for example, merely a sect of Hinduism (despite their many similarities).
The word "religion"
Major religions of the world
What makes a religion important, or worth studying? Common criteria include
- Size, i.e. number of followers. Major problems include definitional ones (e.g., are we to count "Catholics" according to the number of people baptized as Catholics, the number who say they are Catholics, or the number who attend mass at least occasionally?) as well as practical problems of enumeration. This list is organized according to size. Adherents.com is a well-known site which compiles population estimates for various religions.
- Antiquity, i.e. the age of a religion (with older ones generally being regarded as more venerable). This is not always easily calculated. For example, to many it seems obvious that Judaism is older than Christianity, which in turn is older than Islam; yet all three emerged from (and lay claim to) much the same prophetic tradition. Moreover, the basic features of (rabbinic) Judaism and Christianity as we know them coalesced at about the same time, during the second-to-fourth centuries AD. And should the International Society for Krishna Consciousness be traced back to the 1960's activity of A.C. Bhaktivedanta Prabhupada; to the career of the fifteenth-century Bengali saint Caitanya; to the composition of the Bhagavadgita some two thousand years ago; or to Krishna himself (if he in fact existed as a historical figure)?
- Influence. While this is difficult to quantify with anything like objectivity, several religions have clearly influenced the world beyond what their numbers would suggest. For example, many of the characteristic features of the Abrahamic religions seem to have originated with Zoroastrianism, whose presence is now much reduced. And Jews have never been very numerous, but an intellectual history of the world could hardly be written without reference to them.
- Intrinsic interest. Often interest in a religion is inspired by some noteworthy event or attribute, whether good or bad.
Over 1 billion followers
Religions at this size tend to double as "civilizations."
Christianity Origin of name: Refers to belief that Jesus is the Messiah (Greek Christos) Object(s) of worship:God, generally in the form of the Trinity Founder(s):Jesus Christ Holy Text: The (Christian) Bible, consisting of Old and New Testaments Beliefs in a nutshell: Jesus Christ is God incarnate, who brings salvation. Major divisions: the "Oriental" churches, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, Protestanism Population: 1.5 to 2 billion Main geographic areas: Europe, the Americas, Oceania, several Asian countries.
Islam Origin of name: From an Arabic word meaning "submission" (i.e., to God) Object(s) of worship: God (Arabic Allah) Founder(s): Historically, the Prophet Muhammad.
- NB:
Holy Text: Beliefs in a nutshell: There is only one God, and Muhammad is his prophet. Major divisions: Sunni and Shi'a, based on disagreements over who should have succeeded Muhammad in his role as leader of the Muslim community. Population: Perhaps a billion. Main geographic areas: The "land of Islam" includes Arabic, Persian, Turkish, sub-Saharan African, Indian sub-continental, (Hui) Chinese, and Malay-Indonesian subregions.
- Origin of name: Chosen by Muslims, to describe the religion of people living on the "other" side of the Indus River.
- Object(s) of worship: A wide variety of deities, of whom the most popular are Vishnu and Shiva.
- Founder(s): Not applicable.
- Holy Text: Chiefly the Vedas; various others.
- Beliefs in a nutshell: Vary widely. Typical ones include karma, varnashrama,
- Major divisions: Hinduism is a collective name for a vast array of communities and their cults, some
- Population: Perhaps a billion.
- Main geographic areas: India, Nepal, Bali, and the Indian diaspora.
Over 100 million followers
Chinese religion is a complex of folk traditions such as ancestor-worship; professional religious services operating under the names of "Buddhism" and "Taoism"; a "Confucian" social ethic; and various sectarian movements which partake of this ethos. There is a serious difficulty with demarcation as well as nomenclature, as many people in this category describe themselves as irreligious, or else give "Buddhism" as the name of their religion. As the name suggests, Chinese religion is largely confined to ethnic (Han) Chinese, whether in China proper or overseas. While practically all 1.3 billion of these would participate in some aspect of the folk religion, such as funeral or New Years' customs, the proportion who view this as their religion is surely much smaller. The government of China insists on sharply distinguishing between "Taoism" and "Buddhism" (which are regulated separately), and "superstition" and popular devotion (which are unprotected).
Buddhism was historically founded by Siddhartha Gautama, but recognizes Buddhas who predate him as a part of its sacred history. The major objects of worship are the "three jewels" (Buddha, dharma, sangha); and a commonly-expressed goal within the religion is enlightenment, or escape from the cycle of reincarnation. Culturally and theologically, Buddhism naturally divides into (1) Southern Buddhism, or Theravada, and (2) Northern Buddhism, or Mahayana; with the latter capable of being subdivided into (2a) Tibetan / Mongolian / Himalayan Buddhism, and (2b) East Asian Buddhism. ("Vajrayana" or "Tantric" Buddhism is a special subcategory of Mahayana.) The number of people for whom Buddhism is their sole religious identity is probably between 100 and 150 million, a number that would at least double if East Asians who combine Buddhism with other identities are added.
Over 10 million followers
Sikhismrecognizes a series of ten gurus beginning with Guru Nanak in the sixteenth century. Its spiritual homeland is India's Punjab region. Sikhism is sometimes described as a form of local resistance to Islam, which incorporated crucial features of its enemy such as monotheism and militancy, and gradually developed an identity independent of Hinduism.
Judaism is the religion associated with the Hebrew Bible, including the "written and oral Torahs"; and with the "people of Israel" represented today by ethnic Jews. Its sacred history recognizes Abraham as its greatest patriarch; Moses as its greatest prophet and lawgiver; and David as its greatest king. From its sacred homeland of Israel, Judaism has been indelibly shaped by its history of exile, and experience of anti-Semitism. For most Jews, perhaps, Judaism is primarily an ethnic identity, for which the religion serves as a useful marker or anchor.
Over one million followers
The Baha'i religion -- followers of 19th-century Persian prophet Baha'u'llah. A major emphasis is the unity of humanity transcending all divisions of race, nationality, gender, etc. The religion has spread to numerous countries worldwide.
Caodaism -- a Vietnamese religion founded in 1925, and emphasizing mediumistic messages received from such spirits as Victor Hugo or Sun Yat-sen. The Vietnamese government strictly regulates its activities so that, for example, seances are no longer practiced. "Caodai" means "high tower" and is their name for God.
Yiguandao (or I-Kuan Tao) -- a Chinese sectarian movement most visible in Taiwan. Yiguandao ("Unity Religion") claims a series of "patriarchs" from the primordial Chinese or Buddhist past. Its historical roots lie in late-Ching Dynasty teachers Lu Zhongyi (identified with Maitreya) and Zhang Tianran.
Chondogyo A 19th-century Korean movement that arose in opposition to Roman Catholicism. The name means "Teachings of the Way of Heaven." Its earlier name was Donghak ("Eastern Teachings"), in contrast to the Western teachings which it was confronting.
Less than one million followers
Zoroastrianism Based on the teachings of the ancient Iranian prophet Zarathustra (also known by his Greek name of Zoroaster), and associated with the pre-Islamic kings of Persia. It is often described as dualistic (good/evil), but may equally be considered to have inspired the monotheism of the Abrahamic religions. Based on its holy text, the Avesta, Zarathustra appears to have modified an ancient Iranian religion which resembled that of India. After Irans' conversion to Islam, the number of Zoroastrians plummeted, until today there remain only a few communities in Yazd (Iran) and Bombay (India). Nevertheless, Zoroastrian tradition continues to influence Iranian society through such things as the Noruz holiday customs, and Firdowsi's epic poem Shahnama.
Mandaeanism
Oomoto
Neopaganism includes a variety of revivals of
"New Age") is a term that was coined to describe the modern trend of new religions which have a strong belief in the supernatural. Some religions strongly reject the label as it has been used derisively by scholars of other faiths, while some religions accept the label proudly. These religions are very diverse.
Borderline cases
There is no agreement as to the proper meaning and scope of the term "religion." Following are some debateable examples:
Confucianism. Textbooks on religion often include Confucianism, but its adherents often disagree, pointing to Confucius' reluctance to discuss the supernatural.
Freemasonry. Masonic tradition contains ample references to God (called "the Grand Architect of the Universe") and biblical imagery (such as the Temple of Solomon). Like religions, the Masons perform solemn rituals, cultivate group solidarity, and stress the cultivation of ethical virtues. However, Freemasons deny that their fraternity qualifies as a "religion," on the grounds that it is meant to complement and encourage--not replace--its members' previous religious identities. Men from any religion (but not atheists) are eligible to join.
- If one insists that the Masons are a religion, despite their protests to the contrary, what are we to make of the Boy Scouts, who boast many of the same features? Scounting has rituals (e.g., the flag ceremony), texts (the Boy Scout Handbook), a founder (Lord Baden-Powell), institutions with rank, and in some countries, required beliefs (such as God).
American civil religion. In the United States, various political rituals are practiced which some (such as Jehovah's Witnesses) reject as covertly religious. An example would be the "Pledge of Allegiance," in which Americans customarily stand facing their flag--with the right hand covering the heart--and recite a short oath which refers to the USA as "one nation under God."
Soviet Communism. For all its anti-religious rhetoric, the USSR boasted "sacred" texts, condemned "heretics", revered founders, conducted rituals (such as venerating Lenin's mummified body), and promoted an elaborate eschatological prophecy in the form of the future workers' utopia. Communism often played much the same organizing role in its citizens' lives as religion does elsewhere--for example, in sponsoring "coming of age" ceremonies.
Astrology.
Subud. Subud is an international network of people who practice a spiritual exercise called the Latihan, in which initiates "open" themselves to God or the Great Life-Force. Subud denies having doctrines, yet promotes numerous traditions (often derived from the teachings of its founder, Bapak Subuh) relating to the nature of the universe and the human soul. Subud sources deny that Subud is a religion, using reasoning similar to that of the Masons. (Atheists are however permitted.)
Yoga. "Yoga" is sometimes taught and practiced as a religious activity, but sometimes not. For many, it is merely another form of exercise, though some aspects (e.g., saluting the sun) bespeak its religious origins and are scarcely understandable otherwise.
Meditation. Refers to a wide range of practices aimed at mental activity or quiesscence.
Interest in UFO's. While there do exist a number of religious movements centered around the thesis that UFO's are space aliens, many other enthusiasts focus on UFO's (and even find a worldview, or source of ultimate meaning, in them) without joining any of the "Saucer Cults."
Esperanto. Enthusiasm for this artificial language resembles a religious movement in some ways. The movement has a revered founder (Dr. Zamenhof), martyrs, goals which some regard as of ultimate concern (world peace, Esperanto as a solution to "the language problem), and has even suffered "schisms" with offshoots like Ido.
Traditional worldviews / traditional behavior. Many traditional societies make no clear distinction between "religious" and "nonreligious" aspects of daily life. How are we to decide, for example, whether a particular people's understanding of their place in the cosmos qualifies as a belief to which they adhere? And at what point does "social etiquette" become "religious custom"?
Scientific / secular values. Is the scientific worldview now prevailing within industrial societies, really just another religious option? If religion is banned in schools, does that amount to an endorsement of the "religion" of "secular humanism" or atheism?
Classification of Religions
The following categories are often encountered:
"Dharmic religions". Includes the several Indic religions which conceive of their teachings in terms of dharma (a word variously meaning "religion" or "duty"): Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
"Abrahamic religions". This category includes the three religions which recognize Abraham as a part of their sacred histories: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Baha'i religion also fits this description, but is more frequently overlooked on account of its small size.
"Monotheistic religions". Religious which affirm belief on one God include Zoroastrianism, Sikhism, and the Abrahamic religions (listed above). Some strains of Hindu or ancient Egyptian religion arguably qualify. The concept becomes somewhat murky in view of the many theologies in which God or his equivalent boasts a heavenly retinue, or changes form. The concept of "henotheism" (in which any of various deities may be singled out for worship as the Supreme Being) has been proposed to describe Hinduism.
Pagan / Heathen religions. These represent a Christian religious category encompassing all non-Christians except Jews, and perhaps also Muslims. "Pagan" comes from the Latin paganus ("country bumpkin"); "heathen" ("heath-dweller") has much the same set of connotations. The terms recall a time when Christianity was making inroads in European cities, while rustics often continued to follow the old religions. For centuries the terms were assumed to be negative; however, "neo-pagan" groups began reclaiming them in the twentieth century.
"People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitab). An Islamic term for other monotheistic religions founded by prophets who revealed holy books. The Qur'an recognizes Judaism, Christianity, and "Sabeanism." (Scholars are unsure as to what a Sabean was.) Muslim theologians debated the status of Zoroastrianism and Hinduism.
"Tribal religions." Include a wide variety of small-scale religions found in pre-modern societies. "Shamanism" describes one common religious-specialist role within many such societies (but neither exhausts the categeory, nor is limited to it).
"New Religious Movements" (NRM's) An umbrella term which encompasses groups which arose (at the very earliest) in the nineteenth century or later. Some scholars prefer World War II as a cutoff date. Not all NRM's claim to be religions per se; some say they are "spirtual movements," while others see themselves as part of another religion such as Christianity.