Recovered memory/Bibliography

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Books

• Brown, Scheflin and Hammond (1998). Memory, Trauma Treatment, And the Law. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-70254-5. 

From this review: "The authors describe the historical origins of what has been called "the false memory debate" ...In extensive detail, the authors review thirty recent studies, every one of which documents that a subgroup of traumatized patients are amnesiatic for childhood sexual abuse. The authors suspect that the primary motivation for creating a controversy over the validity of repression is to challenge the "discovery rule" for suspending the expiration of the statute of limitations for filing legal claims arising from child sexual abuse. In instances where memories of abuse have been repressed, a majority of the states have extended the time limit for filing suit until discovery of the abuse. If repression is shown to be unscientific as claimed by false memory advocates, the delayed discovery doctrine would no longer assist the alleged adult victim in holding alleged abusers accountable in court. After an extensive review of memory literature the authors demonstrate that dissociative amnesia is a robust finding across all studies of traumatized subjects, thus extensions in the statutes of limitation for claims arising from child sexual abuse are justified.")

• Schacter, D.L. (2000). Memory, brain and belief. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 

Review Articles (Secondary Sources, Peer reviewed)

1. Boakes J. (1999) False complaints of sexual assault: recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Med Sci Law 39:112-20. PMID 10332158 (False complaints are easily made and carry serious consequences for the accused. Many of those who make false claims sincerely believe the truth of what they report. Some are opportunistic and are consciously lying for personal gain. A special type of false allegation, the false memory syndrome, arises typically within therapy. ... The influence of practitioners' beliefs and practices in the eliciting of false 'memories' and of false complaints cannot be overlooked.)
2. Brainerd CJ et al. Developmental reversals in false memory: a review of data and theory. Psychol Bull. 2008 May;134(3):343-82.PMID 18444700 (Can susceptibility to false memory and suggestion increase dramatically with age? The authors review the theoretical and empirical literatures on this counterintuitive possibility. ...in some common domains of experience, in which false memories are rooted in meaning connections among events, age increases in false memory are the rule and are sometimes accompanied by net declines in the accuracy of memory.)
3. Brandon S et al. (1998) Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Implications for clinical practice.Br J Psychiatry 172:296-307. PMID 9722329 (The growth in the USA of 'recovered memory therapy' for past sexual abuse has caused great public and professional concern. It became apparent that the polarisation of views and fierce controversy within the American psychiatric community was in danger of bringing psychotherapy into disrepute and it seemed important to examine objectively the scientific evidence before such polarisation developed in the UK. ... The issue of false or recovered memories should not be allowed to confuse the recognition and treatment of sexually abused children. We concluded that when memories are 'recovered' after long periods of amnesia, particularly when extraordinary means were used to secure the recovery of memory, there is a high probability that the memories are false.)
4. Brewin CR, Andrews B (1998) Recovered memories of trauma: phenomenology and cognitive mechanisms. Clin Psychol Rev 18:949-70. PMID 9885769 (We outline four current explanations for the reported forgetting of traumatic events, namely repression, dissociation, ordinary forgetting, and false memory. We then review the clinical and survey evidence on recovered memories, and consider experimental evidence that a variety of inhibitory processes are involved in everyday cognitive activity including forgetting. The data currently available do not allow any of the four explanations to be rejected, and strongly support the likelihood that some recovered memories correspond to actual experiences. )
5. Brown D (1995) Pseudomemories: the standard of science and the standard of care in trauma treatment. Am J Clin Hypn37(3):1-24. PMID 7879722 ("The pseudomemory (PM) debate has focused on individuals who do not remember sexual abuse and later recover these memories, often in therapy. This paper critically reviews experimental research on stress and memory and on suggestibility and memory in terms of its applicability to PM production in therapy. Three different kinds of suggestibility are identified--hypnotizability, postevent misinformation suggestibility, and interrogatory suggestibility. It is hypothesized that interrogatory suggestibility alone or the interaction of all three pose significant risk for PM production. It is argued that a better standard of science is needed before claims can be made about PM production in therapy, since no experimental studies have been conducted on memory performance or suggestibility effects in therapy.")
6. Bruck M, Ceci SJ (1999) The suggestibility of children's memory Annu. Rev. Psychol 1999. 50:419-39
7. Cannell J et al. (2001) Standards for informed consent in recovered memory therapy. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 29:138-47. PMID 11471779 "Malpractice suits against therapists for either instilling or recovering false memories of sexual abuse have increased in the last few years and some of the awards have been large. ...This article concludes that the "risk or cluster of risks" that must be disclosed to a patient recovering repressed memories in psychotherapy should have included warnings about recovering false memories.")
8. Dalenberg C (2006) Recovered memory and the Daubert criteria: recovered memory as professionally tested, peer reviewed, and accepted in the relevant scientific community. Trauma Violence Abuse 7:274-310. PMID 17065548 ("Research during the past two decades has firmly established the reliability of the phenomenon of recovered memory. This review first highlights the strongest evidence for the phenomenon itself and discusses the survey, experimental, and biological evidence for the varying mechanisms that may underlie the phenomenon. ...an argument is made that false memory is a largely orthogonal concept to recovered memory; the possibility of one phenomena is largely irrelevant to the potential for the other... It is concluded that the weight of the evidence should allow the recovered memory victim to come before the court.")
9. Geraerts E et al.2009 Cognitive mechanisms underlying recovered-memory experiences of childhood sexual abuse. Psychol Sci. 20:92-8. PMID 19037903 ("People sometimes report recovering long-forgotten memories of childhood sexual abuse. The memory mechanisms that lead to such reports are not well understood, and the authenticity of recovered memories has often been challenged. ... recovered memories may at times be fictitious and may at other times be authentic.)(see also Geraerts E, McNally RJ.(2008) Forgetting unwanted memories: directed forgetting and thought suppression methods. Acta Psychol (Amst) 127:614-22. PMID 18164273)
10. Gibbs AA, David AS. (2003) Delusion formation and insight in the context of affective disturbance. Epidemiol Psichiatr Soc12:167-74. PMID 14610852 ("We conclude that delusional beliefs may represent false or biased memories of internal or external events modified and strengthened of by affective states.")
11. Gonsalves B, Paller KA (2002) Mistaken memories: remembering events that never happened.Neuroscientist 8:391-5. PMID 12374423 ("Our memories can be accurate, but they are not always accurate. Eyewitness testimony, for example, is notoriously unreliable. ... Behavioral measures have been used to demonstrate false memory phenomena in the laboratory, and neuroimaging measures have been used to provide clues about the relevant events in the brain that support remembering versus misremembering. A central category of misremembering results from confusion between memories for perceived and imagined events, which may result from overlap between particular features of the stored information comprising memories for perceived and imagined events.")
12. Goodyear-Smith FA et al. (1997) Memory recovery and repression: what is the evidence? Health Care Anal 5:99-111 PMID 10167722 ("Both the theory that traumatic childhood memories can be repressed, and the reliability of the techniques used to retrieve these memories are challenged in this paper. Questions are raised about the robustness of the theory and the literature that purports to provide scientific evidence for it. ..Memories recalled during therapy may be treated as metaphorical but, in the absence of corroborative evidence, should not be considered factually true. ")
13. Gutheil TG, Simon RI (1997) Clinically based risk management principles for recovered memory cases. Psychiatr Serv 48:1403-7 PMID 9355166 ("Controversy over cases involving so-called recovered memories of sexual abuse has threatened to divide the mental health field, just as lawsuits based on recovered memories have sometimes divided children from parents and others. The authors review issues in this controversy, including the role of misdirected advocacy for recovered memory by some practitioners, the distinction between the actual events and patient's narrative truth as a factor in the therapeutic alliance, and the contrast between therapeutic and legal remedies.")
14. Howe ML et al. (2006) Children's basic memory processes, stress, and maltreatment.Dev Psychopathol 18:759-69. PMID 17152399 (".. we examine extant assumptions regarding the effects of child maltreatment on memory. The effects of stress on basic memory processes is examined, and potential neurobiological changes relevant to memory development are examined. The impact of maltreatment-related sequelae (including dissociation and depression) on basic memory processes as well as false memories and suggestibility are also outlined. ...the investigations that do exist reveal that maltreated children's basic memory processes are not reliably different from that of other, nonmaltreated children.)"
15. Kihlstrom JF (1997) Hypnosis, memory and amnesia. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 29:3521727-32. PMID 9415925 (Hypnotized subjects respond to suggestions from the hypnotist for imaginative experiences involving alterations in perception and memory. ... hypermnesia suggestions increase false recollection, as well as subjects' confidence in both true and false memories....The clinical and forensic use of hypermnesia and age regression to enhance memory in patients, victims and witnesses (e.g. recovered memory therapy for child sexual abuse) should be discouraged.)
16. Laney C, Loftus EF (2005) Traumatic memories are not necessarily accurate memories. Can J Psychiatry 50:823-8. PMID 16483115 ("Some therapists, as well as other commentators, have suggested that memories of horrific trauma are buried in the subconscious by some special process, such as repression, and are later reliably recovered. We find that the evidence provided to support this claim is flawed. ...We discuss several research paradigms that have shown that various manipulations can be used to implant false memories--including false memories for traumatic events. These false memories can be quite compelling for those who develop them and can include details that make them seem credible to others. The fact that a memory report describes a traumatic event does not ensure that the memory is authentic.)
17. Loftus EF, Davis D (2006) Recovered memories. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2:469-98. PMID 17716079 ("The issues surrounding repressed, recovered, or false memories have sparked one of the greatest controversies in the mental health profession in the twentieth century. We review evidence concerning the existence of the repression and recovery of autobiographical memories of traumatic events and research on the development of false autobiographical memories, how specific therapeutic procedures can lead to false memories)
18. Lynn SJ, Nash MR (1994) Truth in memory: ramifications for psychotherapy and hypnotherapy Am J Clin Hypn 36:194-208. PMID 7992802 ("... we intend to sensitize the clinician to the potential pitfalls of critical reliance on the patient's memories, as well as uncritically accepted clinical beliefs and practices.")
19. Pezdek K, Lam S (2007) What research paradigms have cognitive psychologists used to study "false memory," and what are the implications of these choices? Conscious Cogn 16:2-17. PMID 16157490 ("...examines the methodologies employed by cognitive psychologists to study "false memory," and assesses if these methodologies are likely to facilitate scientific progress or perhaps constrain the conclusions reached. ... Although there is an apparent false memory research bandwagon in cognitive psychology, with increasing numbers of studies published on this topic over the past decade, few researchers (only 13.1% of the articles) have studied false memory as the term was originally intended--to specifically refer to planting memory for an entirely new event that was never experienced in an individual's lifetime.")See disagreement in Wade et al. (2007) False claims about false memory research. Conscious Cogn 16:18-28; PMID 16931058.
20. Porter S et al.(2001) Memory for murder. A psychological perspective on dissociative amnesia in legal contexts.Int J Law Psychiatry 24:23-42. PMID 11346990 (...The uncritical acceptance of the validity of repressed memories in complainants by many courts stands in stark contrast to the response to claims of amnesia from defendants...courts need better guidelines around the issue of dissociative amnesia in both populations. )
21. Schacter DL, Slotnick SD (2004) The cognitive neuroscience of memory distortion Neuron44:149-60. PMID 15450167 ("Memory distortion occurs in the laboratory and in everyday life. This article focuses on false recognition...in which individuals incorrectly claim to have encountered a novel object or event. ...Neuropsychological and neuroimaging results indicate that the hippocampus and several cortical regions contribute to false recognition. Evidence from neuropsychology, neuroimaging, and electrophysiology implicates the prefrontal cortex in retrieval monitoring that can limit the rate of false recognition.")
22. Smeets T et al. (2005) Trying to recollect past events: confidence, beliefs, and memories. Clin Psychol Rev 25:917-34. PMID 16084632 ("Numerous studies claim to have shown that false memories can be easily created in the laboratory. However, a critical analysis of the methods employed in these studies indicates that many of them do not address memory in the strict sense of the word. ...this research domain would profit from studies looking explicitly at whether experimental manipulations intended to implant false memories have overt behavioral consequences.")
23. Stocks JT (1998) Recovered memory therapy: a dubious practice technique. Soc Work 43:423-36 PMID 9739631 ("This article examines the validity of memory work as well as the evidence for the efficacy of therapeutic interventions based in the recovery of childhood sexual abuse memories. Evidence suggests that both true and false memories can be recovered using memory work techniques, and there is no evidence that reliable discriminations can be made between them. ... The article ...suggests that participation in recovered memory therapy may be harmful to clients.)
24. Zola SM (1998) Memory, amnesia, and the issue of recovered memory: neurobiological aspects. Clin Psychol Rev 18:915-32. PMID 9885767 (... describes current facts and ideas about the neurobiology and neuropsychology of memory and amnesia, ... takes into account the information about the biological and behavioral bases of memory and addresses two questions about memory ...whether memories for traumatic events change over time, and whether memories can be created for traumatic events that did not actually happen.)

Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Implications for clinical practice Brandon S et al.

Possibly redundant sourcing

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To improve readability of the main page, consecutive citations after a first were moved here.

• Pezdek K, Lam S (2007) What research paradigms have cognitive psychologists used to study "false memory," and what are the implications of these choices? Conscious Cogn 16:2-17. PMID 16157490

• Widom, SC; Morris S (1997). "Accuracy of Adult Recollections of Childhood Victimization: Part 2. Childhood Sexual Abuse". Psychological Assessment 9: 34–46. DOI:10.1037/1040-3590.9.1.34. ISSN 1040-3590. EJ545434. Research Blogging.

Sheflin, AW; Brown D (1996). "Repressed memory or dissociative amnesia: what the science says". J Psychiat Law 24: 143–88. ISSN 0093-1853.

Herman, Judith Lewis (1997). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence from domestic abuse to political terror. Basic Books, 119–22. ISBN 0465087302. 

• Widom, SC; Morris S (1997). "Accuracy of Adult Recollections of Childhood Victimization: Part 2. Childhood Sexual Abuse". Psychological Assessment 9: 34–46. DOI:10.1037/1040-3590.9.1.34. ISSN 1040-3590. EJ545434. Research Blogging.

Sheflin, AW; Brown D (1996). "Repressed memory or dissociative amnesia: what the science says". J Psychiat Law 24: 143–88. ISSN 0093-1853.

Herman, Judith Lewis (1997). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence from domestic abuse to political terror. Basic Books, 119–22. ISBN 0465087302. 

• Research on the Effect of Trauma on Memory. The Leadership Council (2005). Retrieved on 2008-02-07.

Bowman ES (1996). "Delayed memories of child abuse: Part I: An overview of research findings on forgetting, remembering, and corroborating trauma". Dissociation 9: 221–31.

Research Papers (Primary Sources, Peer reviewed) Selection

• Andrews, B et al. (1999). Characteristics, context and consequences of memory recovery among adults in therapy. Brit J Psychiatry 175:141-146. Abstract: One-hundred and eight therapists provided information on all clients with recovered memories seen in the past three years, and were interviewed in detail on up to three such clients. Of a total of 690 clients, therapists reported that 65% recalled child sexual abuse and 35% recalled other traumas, 32% started recovering memories before entering therapy. According to therapists' accounts, among the 236 detailed client cases, very few appeared improbable and corroboration was reported in 41%. Most (78%) of the clients' initial recovered memories either preceded therapy or preceded the use of memory recovery techniques used by the respondents.

• Chu JA et al. (1999). Memories of childhood abuse: Dissociation, amnesia, and corroboration. Am J Psychiatry 156(5):749-755. Childhood abuse, particularly chronic abuse beginning at early ages, is related to the development of high levels of dissociative symptoms including amnesia for abuse memories. This study strongly suggests that psychotherapy usually is not associated with memory recovery and that independent corroboration of recovered memories of abuse is often present.

• Dahlenberg, C. (1996, Summer) Accuracy, timing and circumstances of disclosure in therapy of recovered and continuous memories of abuse. The Journal of Psychiatry and Law. Seventeen patients who had recovered memories of abuse in therapy participated in a search for evidence confirming or refuting these memories. Memories of abuse were found to be equally accurate whether recovered or continuously remembered.

• Feldman-Summers, S., & Pope, K. S. (1994). The experience of forgetting childhood abuse: A national survey of psychologists. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 636-639. A national sample of psychologists were asked whether they had been abused as children and, if so, whether they had ever forgotten some or all of the abuse. Almost a quarter of the sample (23.9%) reported childhood abuse, and of those, approximately 40% reported a period of forgetting some or all of the abuse. The major findings were that (a) both sexual and nonsexual abuse were subject to periods of forgetting; (b) the most frequently reported factor related to recall was being in therapy; (c) approximately one half of those who reported forgetting also reported corroboration of the abuse; and (d) reported forgetting was not related to gender or age of the respondent but was related to severity of the abuse. Summary: 330 psychologists. 24% physical and 22% sexual abuse. Of those abused, 40% did not remember at some time. 47% had corroboration. 56% said psychotherapy aided in recall. Differences between those who first recalled abuse in therapy and those who recalled it elsewhere were not significant.

• Van der Kolk, BA, & Fisler, R. (1995). Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 505-525. Summary: 46 adults with in depth interviews. Of the 36 with childhood trauma, 42% suffered significant or total amnesia at some time. Corroborative evidence was available for 75%.

• Westerhof, Y et al. (2000). Forgetting child abuse: Feldman-Summers and Pope's (1994) study replicated among Dutch psychologists. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 7, 220-229. In a replication of Feldman-Summers and Pope's (1994) national survey of American psychologists on 'forgetting' childhood abuse, a Dutch sample of 500 members of the Netherlands Institute of Psychologists (NIP) were asked if they had been abused as children and, if so, whether they had ever forgotten some or all of the abuse for soem significant period of time. As compared to the 23.9% in the original study, 13.3% reported childhood abuse. Of that subgroup, 39% (as compared to 40% in the original study) reported a period of forgetting some or all of the abuse for a period of time.

• Williams, L. M. (1995, October). Recovered memories of abuse in women with documented child sexual victimization histories. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8(4). Abstract: This study provides evidence that some adults who claim to have recovered memories of sexual abuse recall actual events that occurred in childhood. One hundred twenty-nine women with documented histories of sexual victimization in childhood were interviewed and asked about abuse history. Seventeen years following the initial report of the abuse, 80 of the women recalled the victimization. One in 10 women (16% of those who recalled the abuse) reported that at some time in the past they had forgotten about the abuse.

http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/abstract/172/4/296The British Journal of Psychiatry 172: 296-307 (1998)