User:John R. Brews/Sample: Difference between revisions

From Citizendium
Jump to navigation Jump to search
imported>John R. Brews
imported>John R. Brews
(Import from WP)
Line 1: Line 1:
{{Image|Block diagram asymptotic gain.PNG|right|250px|Block diagram for asymptotic gain model<ref name=Gray-Meyer/>.}}
{{Image|Signal-flow graph for asymptotic gain model.PNG|right|250px|Possible signal-flow graph for the asymptotic gain model.}}
{{TOC|right}}
{{TOC|right}}
The '''asymptotic gain model'''<ref name=Middlebrook/> (also known as the '''Rosenstark method'''<ref name=Rosenstark/><ref name=Palumbo/>) is a representation of the gain of [[negative feedback amplifier]]s given by the asymptotic gain relation:
An '''idée fixe''' is a preoccupation of mind held so firmly as to resist any attempt to modify it, a fixation. The name originates from the French [French : ''idée'', idea + ''fixe'', fixed]. Although not used technically to denote a particular [[Mental disorder|disorder]] in [[psychology]], ''idée fixe'' is used often in the description of disorders, and is employed widely in literature and everyday English.
:<math>G = G_{\infty} \left( \frac{T}{T + 1} \right) + G_0 \left( \frac{1}{T + 1} \right) \ ,</math>
where ''T'' is the [[return ratio]] with the input source disabled (equal to the negative of the [[loop gain]] in the case of a single-loop system composed of [[Electronic amplifier#Unilateral or bilateral|unilateral]] blocks), ''G<sub>∞</sub>'' is the asymptotic gain and ''G<sub>0</sub>'' is the direct transmission term. This form for the gain can provide intuitive insight into the circuit and often is easier to derive than a direct attack on the gain.


A block diagram that leads to the asymptotic gain expression is shown in the upper figure at right.  The asymptotic gain relation also can be expressed as a [[Signal-flow_graph|signal-flow graph]]. See lower of two figures.  The asymptotic gain model is a special case of the [[extra element theorem]].
==Today's usage==
{{See also|Monomania}}
As an everyday term, ''idée fixe'' may indicate a mindset akin to [[prejudice]] or [[stereotyping]]:<ref name=Fisher/>
:Here again cognitive psychologists have done miracles in disclosing the well-nigh unlimited capabilities ''and'' eagerness of human beings to ward off contradictions ''inter alia'' by closing their eyes to data that are at variance with their assumptions. ... people who accept the stereotype...are forever coming up with evidence to support their ''idée fixe'' and seem unable to notice any information which might disturb their belief.
::::-- H. S. Versnel, ''Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion''<ref name=Versnel/>


==Definition of terms==
However, ''idée fixe'' has also a [[Psychopathology|pathological]] dimension, denoting serious psychological issues, as in this account of Japanese culture for a popular audience:
As follows directly from limiting cases of the gain expression, the asymptotic gain ''G<sub>∞</sub>'' is simply the gain of the system when the return ratio approaches infinity:
:Although her husband did not reproach her, she became like a woman possessed, continually begging for his forgiveness. This he readily gave, but her guilt — and his imagined umbrage — had become for her an ''idée fixe''. Unable to stomach food, she went into a decline and died soon thereafter.
:<math>G_{\infty} = G\ \Big |_{T \rightarrow \infty}\ , </math>
::::--Jack Seaward ''The Japanese''<ref name=Seaward/>


while the direct transmission term ''G<sub>0</sub>'' is the gain of the system when the return ratio is zero:
The pathology is what is denoted in psychology and in the law, as in this technical article about [[anorexia nervosa]]:
:<math>G_{0} = G\  \Big |_{T \rightarrow 0}\ .</math>
:The idée fixe — staying thin — becomes at its furthest extreme so powerful as to render any other ideas or life projects meaningless. ... "I felt all inner development was ceasing, that all becoming and growing were being choked, because a single idea was filling my entire soul"
::::--Susan Bordo ''Toward a new psychology of gender''<ref name= Gergen/>


==Advantages==
''Idée fixe'' began as a parent category of obsession,<ref name= Berrios/> and as a preoccupation of mind the ''idée fixe'' resembles today's [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]]: although the afflicted person can think, reason and act like other people, they are unable to stop a particular train of thought or action.<ref name=Davis/> However, in obsessive-compulsive disorder, the victim recognizes the absurdity of the obsession or compulsion, not necessarily the case with an ''idée fixe'', which normally is a delusion.<ref name=Jakes/>
*This model is useful because it completely characterizes feedback amplifiers, including loading effects and the [[Electronic amplifier#Unilateral or bilateral|bilateral]] properties of amplifiers and feedback networks.
*Often feedback amplifiers are designed such that the return ratio ''T'' is much greater than unity. In this case, and assuming the direct transmission term ''G<sub>0</sub>'' is small (as it often is), the gain ''G'' of the system is approximately equal to the asymptotic gain ''G<sub>∞</sub>''.
*The asymptotic gain is (usually) only a function of passive elements in a circuit, and can often be found by inspection.
*The feedback topology (series-series, series-shunt, etc.) need not be identified beforehand as the analysis is the same in all cases.


==Implementation==
Today, the term ''idée fixe'' does not denote a specific disorder in psychology, and does not appear as a technical designation in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|''Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders'']].<ref name=disorders/> Nonetheless, ''idée fixe'' is used still as a descriptive term,<ref name=Sims/> and appears in dictionaries of psychology.<ref name=dictionary/>
Direct application of the model involves these steps:
# Select a dependent source in the circuit.
# Find the [[return ratio]] for that source.
# Find the gain ''G<sub>∞</sub>'' directly from the circuit by replacing the circuit with one corresponding to ''T'' = ∞.
# Find the gain '' G<sub>0</sub>'' directly from the circuit by replacing the circuit with one corresponding to ''T'' = 0.
# Substitute the values for ''T, G<sub>∞</sub>'' and '' G<sub>0</sub>'' into the asymptotic gain formula.


These steps can be implemented directly in [[SPICE]] using the small-signal circuit of hand analysis. In this approach  the dependent sources of the devices are readily accessed. In contrast, for experimental measurements using real devices or SPICE simulations using numerically generated device models with inaccessible dependent sources, evaluating the return ratio requires [[Return_ratio#Other_Methods|special methods]].
==Background==
As originally employed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,<ref name= Clark/><ref name=Sass/> ''idée fixe''  was "a single pathology of the intellect", distinct from ''[[monomania]]'', a broader term that included ''idée fixe'', but also a wider range of range of pathologies that did not stem from "a single compelling idea or from an emotional excess".<ref name=Shapiro/> A second difference is that the victim of ''idée fixe'' was understood to be unaware of the unreality of their frame of mind,<ref name=Tuke/> while the victim of monomania might be aware.


==Connection with classical feedback theory==
At that time, ''idée fixe'' was discussed as a form of [[neurosis]] or monomania.<ref name= psychology/>:
Classical [[Negative_feedback_amplifier#Classical_model|feedback theory]] neglects feedforward (''G<sub>0</sub>''). If feedforward is dropped, the gain from the asymptotic gain model becomes


::<math>G = G_{\infin} \frac {T} {1+T}  </math>
: The meaning of ''monomania'' in the technical medical sense in which it was first used, was very close to the popular meaning it would soon acquire. It denoted an ''idée fixe'', a single pathological preoccupation in an otherwise sound mind.<ref name=Goldstein/>
:::<math>=\frac {G_{\infin}T}{1+\frac{1} {G_{\infin}} G_{\infin} T} \ . </math>


while in classical feedback theory, in terms of the open loop gain ''A'', the gain with feedback (closed loop gain) is:
The idea of monomania was developed by [[Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol|Esquirol]] as a diagnostic category in his work ''Des Malades Mentales'' (1839) and related to the ''idée fixe'' by [[Wilhelm Griesinger|Griesinger]] (1845) who viewed "every single ''idée fixe'' [as] the expression of a deeply deranged psychic individuality and probably an indicator of an incipient form of mania".<ref name=Sass/>
The "pathologicalization" of political convictions was used to discredit political anarchists.<ref name=Clark/>  The further historical evolution of ''idée fixe'' was much entangled with the introduction of psychologists into legal matters such as the insanity defense, and is found in a number of texts.<ref name=Davis/><ref name=Goldstein/><ref name=Mucke/>


::<math>A_{FB} = \frac {A} {1 + { \beta}_{FB} A} \ , </math>
==Legal implications==
During the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, ''monomania'' appears in treatises on criminal law:<ref name=Hughes/>


Comparison of the two expressions indicates the feedback factor β<sub>FB</sub> is:
:Monomania is a state of madness, or derangement of the mind, with respect to one subject only. Homicidal mania is an insane impulse to kill; pyromania is an insane impulse to burn buildings; and kleptomania is an insane impulse to steal. A person, therefore, may be insane and irresponsible as to one subject and at the same time sane and responsible to others. He may be punished unless impelled to crime by his monomania. But many courts hold that monomania causing an irresistible impulse to crime is no defense when the offender knew the act was wrong.


::<math> \beta_{FB} = \frac {1} {G_{\infin}} \ , </math>
The aberrations of [[pyromania]] and [[kleptomania]] still are recognized as [[impulse control disorder]]s or [[conduct disorders]], and the notion of [[irresistible impulse]] still plays a legal role in the [[insanity defense]].


while the open-loop gain is:
Possibly the best example of the role of ''idée fixe'' in an insanity defense today is its use in identifying the [[paranoia|paranoid personality disorder]].<ref name= Sims/>


::<math> A = G_{\infin} \ T \ . </math>
:A frequent manifestation of ... paranoid personality is the presence of an overvalued idea ... a fixed idea (idée fixe) ... which might seem reasonable both to the patient and to other people. However, it comes to dominate completely the person's thinking and life. ... It is quite distinct phenomenologically from both ''delusion'' and ''obsessional idea''.


If the accuracy is adequate (usually it is), these formulas suggest an alternative evaluation of ''T'': evaluate the open-loop gain and ''G<sub>∞</sub>'' and use these expressions to find ''T''. Often these two evaluations are easier than evaluation of ''T'' directly.
The extreme case of ''paranoid [[psychosis]]'' " ... includes preoccupation with delusional beliefs; believing that people are talking about oneself; believing one is being persecuted or being conspired against; and believing that people or external forces control one's actions."<ref name=Stahl/>


==Examples==
The legal issues surrounding paranoia include judgment of competence to stand trial, conditions for involuntary hospitalization, involuntary medication, and a focus upon awareness or not of unreality at the moment when the defendant "snapped".<ref name=Kantor/>
The steps in deriving the gain using the asymptotic gain formula are outlined below for two negative feedback amplifiers. The single transistor example shows how the method works in principle for a transconductance amplifier, while the second two-transistor example shows the approach to more complex cases using a current amplifier.


===Single-stage transistor amplifier===
==In literature==
{{Image|MOSFET Transresistance amplifier.PNG|right|200px| MOSFET transresistance feedback amplifier.}}
''Idée fixe'' occurs extensively in literature.<ref name=Zuylen/> Perhaps the most famous example of an idée fixe is in [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]]'s  ''[[Don Quixote]]'':<ref name=Farell/>
{{Image|Small-signal transresistance amplifier.PNG|right|250px| Small-signal circuit for transresistance amplifier; the feedback resistor ''R<sub>f</sub>'' is placed below the amplifier to resemble the standard topology.}}
:Don Quixote reveals his kinship to the most commonly encountered of Cervantes's character types: the head-in-clouds fantasist, obsessed by his ''idée fixe''.<ref name=Close/>
Consider the simple [[MOSFET]] feedback amplifier at right. The aim is to find the low-frequency, open-circuit, transresistance gain of this circuit ''G'' = {{nowrap|''v<sub>out</sub>'' / ''i <sub>in</sub>''}} using the asymptotic gain model.


Under the circuit with the transistor is the [[small-signal]] equivalent circuit, where the transistor is replaced by its [[hybrid-pi model]].
[[Molière]] also used the ''idée fixe'' repeatedly:<ref name=Howarth/>
:Molière's more celebrated comic characters, Arnolphe, Orgon, Alceste, Harpagon, Monsieur Jourdain, Argan: each of them displays to the very end the obsession or ''idée fixe'' which colors his outlook on life. It is a characteristic of Molière's heroes that they are never ‘converted’: in every case the dénouement, far from curing them of their folly, merely confirms them in it.


====Return ratio====
Although [[Herman Melville|Melville]]'s Captain Ahab may come to mind as another famous example of ''idée fixe'', and it is sometimes referred to this way,<ref name=Zuylen/> more often Ahab's obsession is referred to as ''monomania'' (the more inclusive term), and Melville himself does that. It would seem from the description of Ahab's possession that ''idée fixe'' applies quite accurately, as the following description suggests:
{{Image|Return ratio.PNG|right|300px|Small-signal circuit with return path broken and test current ''i<sub>t</sub>'' driving amplifier at the break.}}
:"Not one jot of his great natural intellect had perished." ... "Yielding up all his thoughts and fancies to his one supreme purpose", Ahab has let his mind's guiding and directing power be usurped by the "sheer inveteracy" of a will driven by "one unachieved revengeful desire" (Quotes from [[Moby-Dick]], pp. 990, 1007)
It is most straightforward to begin by finding the return ratio ''T'', because ''G<sub>0</sub>'' and ''G<sub>∞</sub>'' are defined as limiting forms of the gain as ''T'' tends to either zero or infinity. To take these limits, it is necessary to know what parameters ''T'' depends upon. There is only one dependent source in this circuit, so as a starting point the return ratio related to this source is determined as outlined in the article on [[return ratio]].
::::--Thomas Cooley ''The ivory leg in the ebony cabinet: madness, race, and gender in Victorian America''<ref name=Cooley/>
However, what makes ''monomania'' the better term is that "Captain Ahab ... has an inkling of his true state of mind: 'my means are sane, my motive and my object mad.{{' "}}<ref name=Cooley/>


The [[return ratio]] is found using the figure.  In the figure, the input current source is set to zero, By cutting the dependent source out of the output side of the circuit, and short-circuiting its terminals, the output side of the circuit is isolated from the input and the feedback loop is broken. A test current ''i<sub>t</sub>'' replaces the dependent source. Then the return current generated in the dependent source by the test current is found. The return ratio is then ''T'' ={{nowrap| −''i<sub>r</sub> / i<sub>t</sub>''.}} Using this method, and noticing that ''R<sub>D</sub>'' is in parallel with ''r<sub>O</sub>'', ''T'' is determined as:
The words ''idée fixe'' also occur explicitly: for example, in [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s [[Sherlock Holmes]]:
:<math>T = g_m \left( R_D\ ||r_O \right) \approx g_m R_D \ , </math>
:There is the condition which the modern French psychologists have called the {{'}}''idée fixe''{{'}}, which may be trifling in character, and accompanied by complete sanity in every other way. A man might form such an ''idée fixe''... and under its influence be capable of any fantastic outrage.
where the approximation is accurate in the common case where ''r<sub>O</sub>'' >> ''R<sub>D</sub>''. With this relationship it is clear that the limits ''T'' → 0, or ∞ are realized if we let [[transconductance]] ''g<sub>m</sub>'' → 0, or ∞.<ref name=note1/>
::::--Arthur Conan Doyle ''The return of Sherlock Holmes''<ref name=Holmes/>


====Asymptotic gain====
and in [[Abraham B. Yehoshua]]'s novel about the Mani family through six generations:
Finding the asymptotic gain ''G<sub>∞</sub>'' provides insight, and usually can be done by inspection. To find ''G<sub>∞</sub>'' we let ''g<sub>m</sub>'' → ∞ and find the resulting gain. The drain current, ''i<sub>D</sub>'' = ''g<sub>m</sub>'' ''v<sub>GS</sub>'', must be finite. Hence, as ''g<sub>m</sub>'' approaches infinity, ''v<sub>GS</sub>'' also must approach zero. As the source is grounded, ''v<sub>GS</sub>'' = 0 implies ''v<sub>G</sub>'' = 0 as well.<ref name=note2/> With ''v<sub>G</sub>'' = 0 and the fact that all the input current flows through ''R<sub>f</sub>'' (as the FET has an infinite input impedance), the output voltage is simply −''i<sub>in</sub> R<sub>f</sub>''. Hence


:<math>G_{\infty} = \frac{v_{out}}{i_{in}} = -R_f\ .</math>
:...I had begun to despair of his accursed ''idée fixe'' which devoured every other ''idée'' that it encountered...
::::--Abraham B. Yehoshua ''Mr. Mani''<ref name=Halkin/>


Alternatively ''G<sub>∞</sub>'' is the gain found by replacing the transistor by an ideal amplifier with infinite gain - a [[nullor]].<ref name=Verhoeven/>
and in the account of the war on terror by [[George W. Bush|George Bush]]'s counter-terrorism chief [[Richard A. Clarke]]:
:Iraq was portrayed as the most dangerous thing in national security. It was an idée fixe, a rigid belief, received wisdom, a decision already made and one that no fact or event could derail.
::::--Richard A Clarke ''Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror''<ref name=Clarke/>


====Direct feedthrough====
==References==
To find the direct feedthrough ''G<sub>0</sub>'' we simply let ''g<sub>m</sub>'' → 0 and compute the resulting gain. The currents through ''R<sub>f</sub>'' and the parallel combination of ''R<sub>D</sub>'' || ''r<sub>O</sub>'' must therefore be the same and equal to ''i<sub>in</sub>''. The output voltage is therefore ''i<sub>in</sub> (R<sub>D</sub> || r<sub>O</sub>)''.


Hence
{{Reflist|refs=
:<math>G_0 = \frac{v_{out}}{i_{in}} = R_D\|r_O \approx R_D \ ,</math>
 
<ref name= Berrios>
 
{{cite book |title=The history of mental symptoms: descriptive psychopathology since the nineteenth century |author= G. E. Berrios |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XSD_ucVR3E8C&pg=PA153 |chapter=Note 63; page 153  |isbn=0521437369 |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
 
</ref>


where the approximation is accurate in the common case where ''r<sub>O</sub>'' >> ''R<sub>D</sub>''.
<ref name= Clark>


====Overall gain====
{{Cite book|title=Legal medicine in history |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qqIWH-X2BjYC&pg=PA214 |pages=pp. 214 ''ff'' |author=Michael Clark, Catherine Crawford |isbn=0521395143 |year=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
The overall [[Electronic_amplifier#Input_and_output_variables|transresistance gain]] of this amplifier is therefore:


:<math>G = \frac{v_{out}}{i_{in}} = -R_f \frac {g_m R_D}{1+g_m R_D} + R_D \frac{1}{1+g_m R_D} \ .</math>
</ref>


Examining this equation, it appears to be advantageous to make ''R<sub>D</sub>'' large in order make the overall gain approach the asymptotic gain, which makes the gain insensitive to amplifier parameters (''g<sub>m</sub>'' and ''R<sub>D</sub>''). In addition, a large first term reduces the importance of the direct feedthrough factor, which degrades the amplifier. One way to increase ''R<sub>D</sub>'' is to replace this resistor by an [[active load]], for example, a [[current mirror]].
<ref name=Clarke>


===Two-stage transistor amplifier===
{{Cite book|title=Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror |publisher=Free Press |year=2004 |isbn=0743260457 |author=Richard A Clarke |url=http://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=%22It+was+an+idee+fixe,+a+rigid+belief,+received+wisdom,+a+decision+already+made+and+one+that+no+fact+or+event+could+derail.+There+is+seldom+in+history+a+single+reason+%22&num=10}}
{{Image|Shunt-series feedback amplifier.PNG|right|200px|Two-transistor feedback amplifier; any source impedance ''R<sub>S</sub>'' is lumped in with the base resistor ''R<sub>B</sub>''.}}
{{Image|Using return ratio.PNG|right|350px|Three small-signal schematics used to discuss the asymptotic gain model; parameter α <nowiki>=</nowiki> β / ( β+1 ); resistor R<sub>C</sub> <nowiki>=</nowiki> R<sub>C1</sub>.}}
A figure at left shows a two-transistor amplifier with a feedback resistor ''R<sub>f</sub>''. This amplifier is often referred to as a ''shunt-series feedback'' amplifier, and analyzed on the basis that resistor ''R<sub>2</sub>'' is in series with the output and samples output current, while ''R<sub>f</sub>'' is in shunt (parallel) with the input and subtracts from the input current. See the article on [[Negative_feedback_amplifier#Two-port_analysis_of_feedback|negative feedback amplifier]] and references by Meyer or Sedra.<ref name=Gray-Meyer2/><ref name=Sedra1/> That is, the amplifier uses current feedback. It frequently is ambiguous just what type of feedback is involved in an amplifier, and the asymptotic gain approach has the advantage/disadvantage that it works whether or not you understand the circuit.


Although the figure indicates the output node, it does not indicate the choice of output variable. In what follows, the output variable is selected as the short-circuit current of the amplifier, that is, the collector current of the output transistor. Other choices for output are discussed later.
</ref>


To implement the asymptotic gain model, the dependent source associated with either transistor can be used. Here the first transistor is chosen.
<ref name=Close>


====Return ratio====
{{Cite book|title=Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote |author=Anthony J. Close |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2ItJRxkLKykC&pg=PA106 |isbn=0521313457 |page=p. 106 |year=1990 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}
The circuit to determine the return ratio is shown in the top panel of the arrangement of three small-signal circuits. Labels show the currents in the various branches as found using a combination of [[Ohm's law]] and [[Kirchhoff's laws]]. Resistor ''R<sub>1</sub> = R<sub>B</sub> // r<sub>π1</sub>'' and ''R<sub>3</sub> = R<sub>C2</sub> // R<sub>L</sub>''. KVL from the ground of ''R<sub>1</sub>'' to the ground of ''R<sub>2</sub>'' provides:


:<math> i_B = -v_{ \pi} \frac {1+R_2/R_1+R_f/R_1} {(\beta +1) R_2} \ . </math>
</ref>


KVL provides the collector voltage at the top of ''R<sub>C</sub>'' as
<ref name=Cooley>


:<math>v_C = v_{ \pi} \left(1+ \frac {R_f} {R_1} \right ) -i_B r_{ \pi 2} \ . </math>
{{Cite book|author=Thomas Cooley |title=The ivory leg in the ebony cabinet: madness, race, and gender in Victorian America |year=2001 |publisher=University of Massachusetts Press |isbn=1558492844 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2zxd_PJIeAwC&pg=PA42 |page=p. 42}} Page numbers refer to {{Cite book|title=Moby-Dick, or the Whale |author=Herman Melville |year=1983 |isbn=0940450097 |publisher=Library of America |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=_d4cfyf5FH0C&pg=PA771 |editor=G Thomas Tanselle |edition=Reprint of the 1851 Northwestern-Newberry}}
 
</ref>
 
<ref name=Davis>
 
{{Cite book|title=Obsession: a history |author=Lennard J. Davis |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Z5ATMl1uCCcC&pg=PA69 |page=pp. 69 ''ff'' |isbn=0226137821 |year=2008 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}
 
</ref>
 
<ref name=dictionary>
 
For example, {{Cite book|title=The dictionary of psychology |author= Raymond J. Corsini |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0uxnglHzYaoC&pg=PA467 |page=p. 467 |isbn=1583913289 |year=2002 |publisher=Psychology Press}}
</ref>
 
 
<ref name=disorders>
 
{{Cite book|title=Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR |publisher=American Psychiatric Society |edition=4rth |year=2000 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3SQrtpnHb9MC&printsec=frontcover |isbn=0890420254}}
 
</ref>
 
<ref name=Farell>
 
{{Cite book|title=Paranoia and modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau |author=John Farrell |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=FeseQP6RtRAC&pg=PA48 |isbn=0801444101 |page=p. 48 |year=2006 |publisher=Cornell University Press }}
 
</ref>
 
<ref name=Fisher>
 
{{Cite book|author=Glen Fisher |title=Mindsets: the role of culture and perception in international relations |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B_nl_2GbkJ4C&pg=PA22 |page=p. 22 |isbn=1877864544 |publisher=Intercultural Press |year=1997 |edition=2nd }}
 
</ref>


Finally, KCL at this collector provides
<ref name= Gergen>


:<math> i_T = i_B - \frac {v_C} {R_{C}} \ . </math>
{{Cite book|title=Toward a new psychology of gender |author=Susan Bordo |editor=Mary M. Gergen, Sara N. Davis |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ORGkjS57ouAC&pg=PT399 |page=p. 441 |chapter=Anorexia nervosa: psychopathology as the crystallization of culture |isbn=041591308X |year=1996 |publisher=Routledge}}


Substituting the first equation into the second and the second into the third, the return ratio is found as
</ref>


:<math>T = - \frac {i_R} {i_T} = -g_m \frac {v_{ \pi} }{i_T} </math>
<ref name=Goldstein>
:::<math> =  \frac {g_m R_C} { \left( 1 + \frac {R_f} {R_1} \right) \left( 1+ \frac {R_C+r_{ \pi 2}}{( \beta +1)R_2} \right) +\frac {R_C+r_{ \pi 2}}{(\beta +1)R_1} } \ . </math>


====Gain ''G<sub>0</sub>'' with ''T'' = 0 ====
{{Cite book|title=Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century |author=Jan E. Goldstein |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WiqKcO5OawgC&pg=PA155 |page=p. 155 |isbn=0226301613 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2002}}
The circuit to determine ''G<sub>0</sub>'' is shown in the center panel of the small-circuit array. In the center panel, the output variable is  the output current β''i<sub>B</sub>'' (the short-circuit load current), which leads to the short-circuit current gain of the amplifier, namely β''i<sub>B</sub>'' / ''i''<sub>S</sub>:


::<math> G_0 = \frac { \beta i_B} {i_S} \ . </math>
</ref>


Using [[Ohm's law]], the voltage at the top of ''R<sub>1</sub>'' is found as
<ref name=Halkin>


::<math> ( i_S - i_R ) R_1 = i_R R_f +v_E \ \ ,</math>
{{Cite book|title=Mr. Mani |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=6LIz7JPgiSoC&pg=PA338 |page=p. 338 |isbn=0156627698 |year=1993 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |edition=Hillel Halkin translation |author=Abraham B. Yehoshua}}


or, rearranging terms,
</ref>


::<math> i_S = i_R \left( 1 + \frac {R_f}{R_1} \right) +\frac {v_E} {R_1} \ . </math>
<ref name=Holmes>


Using KCL at the top of ''R<sub>2</sub>'':
{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VGUBSxIvZSEC&pg=PA128&dq=Idée+fixe&hl=en&ei=4o2CTNn9NcL_lgeDi6Ua&sa=X&oi |title=The complete Sherlock Holmes, Volume 1 Barnes & Noble Classics |chapter=The return of Sherlock Holmes |author= Sir Arthur Conan Doyle |editor=Kyle Freeman |publisher= Spark Educational Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=1593080409 |page=p. 128}}


::<math> i_R = \frac {v_E} {R_2} + ( \beta +1 ) i_B \ . </math>
</ref>


Emitter voltage ''v<sub>E</sub>'' already is known in terms of ''i<sub>B</sub>'' from the diagram in the center panel. Substituting the second equation in the first, ''i<sub>B</sub>'' is determined in terms of ''i<sub>S</sub>'' alone, and ''G<sub>0</sub>'' becomes:
<ref name=Howarth>


::<math>G_0 = \frac { \beta  } {
{{Cite book|title=Molière, a playwright and his audience |author=William Driver Howarth |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4247AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA99 |page=p. 99 |isbn=0521286794 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1982}}
( \beta +1) \left( 1 + \frac{R_f}{R_1} \right ) +(r_{ \pi 2} +R_C ) \left[ \frac {1} {R_1} + \frac {1} {R_2} \left( 1 + \frac {R_f} {R_1} \right ) \right]
} </math>


Gain ''G<sub>0</sub>'' represents feedforward through the feedback network, and commonly is negligible.
</ref>


====Gain ''G<sub>&infin;</sub>'' with ''T'' &rarr; &infin;====
<ref name=Hughes>
The circuit to determine ''G<sub>∞</sub>'' is shown in the bottom panel of the small-signal circuits. The introduction of the ideal op amp (a [[nullor]]) in this circuit is explained as follows. When ''T ''→  ∞, the gain of the amplifier goes to infinity as well, and in such a case the differential voltage driving the amplifier (the voltage across the input transistor ''r<sub>π1</sub>'') is driven to zero and (according to Ohm's law when there is no voltage) it draws no input current. On the other hand the output current and output voltage are whatever the circuit demands. This behavior is like a nullor, so a nullor can be introduced to represent the infinite gain transistor.


The current gain is read directly off the schematic:
{{Cite book|title=A treatise on criminal law and procedure |author=Thomas Welburn Hughes |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CQs-AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA36 |page =p. 36 |publisher=Bobbs-Merrill |year=1919}}


::<math> G_{ \infty } = \frac { \beta i_B } {i_S} =  \left( \frac {\beta} {\beta +1} \right)  \left( 1 + \frac {R_f} {R_2} \right) \ . </math>
</ref>


====Comparison with classical feedback theory====
Using the classical model, the feed-forward is neglected and the feedback factor β<sub>FB</sub> is (assuming transistor β >> 1):


::<math> \beta_{FB} = \frac {1} {G_{\infin}} \approx  \frac {1} {(1+ \frac {R_f}{R_2} )} = \frac {R_2} {(R_f + R_2)} \ , </math>
<ref name=Jakes>


and the open-loop gain ''A'' is:
{{Cite book|title=Theoretical approaches to obsessive-compulsive disorder |author= Ian Jakes |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MK0VfrsNRfoC&pg=PA6 |page=p. 6 |isbn=0521460581 |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |chapter=The distinction between obsessional and psychotic thinking }}


::<math>A = G_{\infin}T \approx  \frac {\left( 1+\frac {R_f}{R_2} \right) g_m R_C} { \left( 1 + \frac {R_f} {R_1} \right) \left( 1+ \frac {R_C+r_{ \pi 2}}{( \beta +1)R_2} \right) +\frac {R_C+r_{ \pi 2}}{(\beta +1)R_1} }  \ . </math>
</ref>


====Overall gain====
<ref name=Kantor>
The above expressions  can be substituted into the asymptotic gain model equation to find the overall gain ''G''. The resulting gain is the ''current'' gain of the amplifier with a short-circuit load.


=====Gain using alternative output variables=====
{{Cite book|title=Understanding paranoia: a guide for professionals, families, and sufferers |author= Martin Kantor |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=9ia6zITbOnMC&pg=PA91 |chapter=Chapter 8: Forensic issues |pages=pp. 91 ''ff''
In the figure showing the amplifier with transistors, ''R<sub>L</sub>'' and ''R<sub>C2</sub>'' are in parallel.
|isbn=0275981525 |year=2004 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group}}
To obtain the transresistance gain, say ''A''<sub>ρ</sub>, that is, the gain using voltage as output variable, the short-circuit current gain ''G'' is multiplied by ''R<sub>C2</sub> // R<sub>L</sub>'' in accordance with [[Ohm's law]]:


::<math> A_{ \rho} = G \left( R_{C2} // R_{L} \right) \ . </math>
</ref>


The ''open-circuit'' voltage gain is found from ''A''<sub>ρ</sub> by setting ''R''<sub>L</sub> → ∞.
<ref name=Mucke>


To obtain the current gain when load current ''i<sub>L</sub>'' in load resistor ''R''<sub>L</sub> is the output variable, say ''A''<sub>i</sub>, the formula for [[current division]] is used: ''i<sub>L</sub> = i<sub>out</sub> × R<sub>C2</sub> / ( R<sub>C2</sub> + R<sub>L</sub> )'' and the short-circuit current gain ''G'' is multiplied by this [[Voltage_divider#Loading_effect|loading factor]]:
{{Cite book|title=The seduction of the occult and the rise of the fantastic tale |author=Dorothea E. von Mücke |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=pqIzEGHtCEoC&pg=PA114 |pages=pp. 114 ''ff'' |isbn=0804738602 |year=2003 |publisher=Stanford University Press}}


::<math> A_i = G \left( \frac {R_{C2}} {R_{C2}+ R_{L}} \right) \ . </math>
</ref>


Of course, the short-circuit current gain is recovered by setting ''R''<sub>L</sub> = 0 Ω.
<ref name= psychology>


==References and notes==
{{Cite book|title=Mind, Volume 9 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KijkAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA94 |pages=pp. 94''ff'' |chapter=Névroses et Idées Fixes |year=1900 |publisher=Oxford University Press |author=F Raymond, Pierre Janet}}
{{Reflist|refs=


<ref name=Gray-Meyer>
{{cite book
|author=Paul R. Gray, Hurst P J Lewis S H & Meyer RG
|title=Analysis and design of analog integrated circuits
|year= 2001
|edition=Fourth Edition
|publisher=Wiley
|location=New York
|isbn=0-471-32168-0
|url=http://worldcat.org/isbn/0-471-32168-0
|nopp=true
|pages=Figure 8.42 p. 604}}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Gray-Meyer2>
<ref name=Sass>
{{cite book
 
|author=P R Gray, P J Hurst, S H Lewis, and R G Meyer
{{Cite book|title=International Handbook on Psychopathic Disorders and the Law |author=Alan Felthous, Henning Sass |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=8WhcGo-1MkYC&pg=PA11 |page=p. 11 |isbn=0470066385 |year=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}
|title=Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits
 
|year= 2001
|edition=Fourth Edition
|publisher=Wiley
|location=New York
|isbn=0-471-32168-0
|url=http://worldcat.org/isbn/0471321680
|pages=586–587}}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Middlebrook>


{{cite journal |author=RD Middlebrook |title= Design-oriented analysis of feedback amplifiers|journal=Proc. of National Electronics Conference|volume= Vol. XX |date=Oct. 1964 |pages= pp. 1-4}}
 
<ref name=Seaward>
 
{{Cite book|title=The Japanese: the often misunderstood, sometimes surprising, and always fascinating culture and lifestyles of Japan |author=Jack Seward |isbn=0844283932 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional |year=1992 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lZPalph2Sk4C&pg=PA226 |page=p. 226}}


</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=note1>
<ref name=Shapiro>
Although changing ''R<sub>D</sub> // r<sub>O</sub>'' also could force the return ratio limits, these resistor values affect other aspects of the circuit as well. It is the ''control parameter'' of the dependent source that must be varied because it affects ''only'' the dependent source.
 
{{Cite book|title= Breaking the codes: female criminality in fin-de-siècle Paris |author=Ann-Louise Shapiro |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hPIzXY87dC0C&pg=PA100 |page=p. 100 |isbn=0804726930 |year=1996 |publisher=Stanford University Press}}
 
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=note2>
<ref name= Sims>
Because the input voltage ''v<sub>GS</sub>'' approaches zero as the return ratio gets larger, the amplifier input impedance also tends to zero, which means in turn (because of [[current division]]) that the amplifier works best if the input signal is a current. If a Norton source is used, rather than an ideal current source, the formal equations derived for ''T'' will be the same as for a Thévenin voltage source. Note that in the case of input current, ''G<sub>∞</sub>'' is a [[Electronic amplifier#Input and output variables|transresistance]] gain.
 
{{Cite book|title=Sims' Symptoms in the mind: an introduction to descriptive psychopathology |author=Femi Oyebode |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=CGGqvUTJXEYC&pg=PA404 |isbn=0702028851 |page=p. 404 |chapter=Chapter 21: The expression of disordered personality |year=2008 |edition=Updated 4th |publisher=Saunders Ltd |page=p. 382 |chapter=Paranoid personality disorder }}
 
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Palumbo>
<ref name=Stahl>
{{cite book
 
|author=Palumbo, Gaetano & Salvatore Pennisi
{{Cite book|title=Stahl's essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications |author=Stephen M. Stahl |chapter=Psychosis and schizophrenia |page=p. 249 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cWbYxSfKN3cC&pg=PA249 |isbn=0521857023 |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=3rd}}
|title=Feedback amplifiers: theory and design
 
|year= 2002
|publisher=Kluwer Academic
|location=Boston/Dordrecht/London
|isbn=0792376439
|url=http://worldcat.org/isbn/0792376439
|pages=§3.3 pp. 69–72}}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Rosenstark>
<ref name=Tuke>
{{cite book
 
|author=Rosenstark, Sol
{{Cite book|title=A Dictionary of psychological medicine: giving the definition, etymology and synonyms of the terms used in medical psychology with the symptoms, treatment, and pathology of insanity and the law of lunacy in Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 2 |author=Daniel Hack Tuke |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-tJvuxjGYU4C&pg=PA678 |page=p. 678 |year=1892 |publisher=J. & A. Churchill |quote=Some of the French alienists extend the use of the term [imperative idea] to actual delusion (''idée fixe'' ), as for instance, ideas of persecution. but it is to be hoped that [imperative idea] will be carefully restricted to that intellectual tyranny which the individual deplores and is not deluded by.}}
|title=Feedback amplifier principles
 
|page=15
|year= 1986
|publisher=Collier Macmillan
|location=NY
|isbn=0029478103
|url=http://worldcat.org/isbn/0029478103}}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Sedra1>
 
{{cite book
<ref name=Versnel>
|author=A. S. Sedra and K.C. Smith
 
|title=Microelectronic Circuits
{{Cite book|title=Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Ter Unus: Isis, Dionysos, Hermes  |year=1998 |edition=2nd |isbn=9004092668 |author=HS Vernel |page=p. 7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=5fWxUKirtYEC&pg=PA7 |publisher=Koninklÿke Brill}}
|year= 2004
 
|edition=Fifth Edition
|pages=Example 8.4, pp. 825–829 and PSpice simulation pp. 855–859
|publisher=Oxford
|location=New York
|isbn=0-19-514251-9
|url=http://worldcat.org/isbn/0-19-514251-9
|nopp=true}}
</ref>
</ref>


<ref name=Verhoeven>
<ref name=Zuylen>
{{cite book
 
|author=Verhoeven C J M van Staveren A Monna G L E Kouwenhoven M H L & Yildiz E
{{Cite book|title=Monomania: the flight from everyday life in literature and art |author=Marina Van Zuylen |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4mq6NoBaeY0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=literature+occurrence+%22Id%C3%A9e+fixe%22&hl=en&ei=EKmCTI_KLI6ksQOu9YT3Bw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Idee%20fixe&f=false |pages=pp. 10, 38, 64, 68 ... |isbn= 0801442982 |year=2005 |publisher=Cornell University Press}}
|title=Structured electronic design: negative feedback amplifiers
 
|year= 2003
|publisher=Kluwer Academic
|location=Boston/Dordrecht/London
|isbn=1402075901
|pages=§2.3 - §2.5 pp. 34–40
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=p8wDptzCMrUC&pg=PA24&dq=isbn=1402075901&sig=cxJIK6hgY7wKfWc7cV6ZVHT-iDc#PPA35,M1}}
</ref>
</ref>


}}
}}

Revision as of 11:54, 6 August 2011

An idée fixe is a preoccupation of mind held so firmly as to resist any attempt to modify it, a fixation. The name originates from the French [French : idée, idea + fixe, fixed]. Although not used technically to denote a particular disorder in psychology, idée fixe is used often in the description of disorders, and is employed widely in literature and everyday English.

Today's usage

See also: Monomania

As an everyday term, idée fixe may indicate a mindset akin to prejudice or stereotyping:[1]

Here again cognitive psychologists have done miracles in disclosing the well-nigh unlimited capabilities and eagerness of human beings to ward off contradictions inter alia by closing their eyes to data that are at variance with their assumptions. ... people who accept the stereotype...are forever coming up with evidence to support their idée fixe and seem unable to notice any information which might disturb their belief.
-- H. S. Versnel, Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion[2]

However, idée fixe has also a pathological dimension, denoting serious psychological issues, as in this account of Japanese culture for a popular audience:

Although her husband did not reproach her, she became like a woman possessed, continually begging for his forgiveness. This he readily gave, but her guilt — and his imagined umbrage — had become for her an idée fixe. Unable to stomach food, she went into a decline and died soon thereafter.
--Jack Seaward The Japanese[3]

The pathology is what is denoted in psychology and in the law, as in this technical article about anorexia nervosa:

The idée fixe — staying thin — becomes at its furthest extreme so powerful as to render any other ideas or life projects meaningless. ... "I felt all inner development was ceasing, that all becoming and growing were being choked, because a single idea was filling my entire soul"
--Susan Bordo Toward a new psychology of gender[4]

Idée fixe began as a parent category of obsession,[5] and as a preoccupation of mind the idée fixe resembles today's obsessive-compulsive disorder: although the afflicted person can think, reason and act like other people, they are unable to stop a particular train of thought or action.[6] However, in obsessive-compulsive disorder, the victim recognizes the absurdity of the obsession or compulsion, not necessarily the case with an idée fixe, which normally is a delusion.[7]

Today, the term idée fixe does not denote a specific disorder in psychology, and does not appear as a technical designation in the Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders.[8] Nonetheless, idée fixe is used still as a descriptive term,[9] and appears in dictionaries of psychology.[10]

Background

As originally employed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,[11][12] idée fixe was "a single pathology of the intellect", distinct from monomania, a broader term that included idée fixe, but also a wider range of range of pathologies that did not stem from "a single compelling idea or from an emotional excess".[13] A second difference is that the victim of idée fixe was understood to be unaware of the unreality of their frame of mind,[14] while the victim of monomania might be aware.

At that time, idée fixe was discussed as a form of neurosis or monomania.[15]:

The meaning of monomania in the technical medical sense in which it was first used, was very close to the popular meaning it would soon acquire. It denoted an idée fixe, a single pathological preoccupation in an otherwise sound mind.[16]

The idea of monomania was developed by Esquirol as a diagnostic category in his work Des Malades Mentales (1839) and related to the idée fixe by Griesinger (1845) who viewed "every single idée fixe [as] the expression of a deeply deranged psychic individuality and probably an indicator of an incipient form of mania".[12] The "pathologicalization" of political convictions was used to discredit political anarchists.[11] The further historical evolution of idée fixe was much entangled with the introduction of psychologists into legal matters such as the insanity defense, and is found in a number of texts.[6][16][17]

Legal implications

During the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, monomania appears in treatises on criminal law:[18]

Monomania is a state of madness, or derangement of the mind, with respect to one subject only. Homicidal mania is an insane impulse to kill; pyromania is an insane impulse to burn buildings; and kleptomania is an insane impulse to steal. A person, therefore, may be insane and irresponsible as to one subject and at the same time sane and responsible to others. He may be punished unless impelled to crime by his monomania. But many courts hold that monomania causing an irresistible impulse to crime is no defense when the offender knew the act was wrong.

The aberrations of pyromania and kleptomania still are recognized as impulse control disorders or conduct disorders, and the notion of irresistible impulse still plays a legal role in the insanity defense.

Possibly the best example of the role of idée fixe in an insanity defense today is its use in identifying the paranoid personality disorder.[9]

A frequent manifestation of ... paranoid personality is the presence of an overvalued idea ... a fixed idea (idée fixe) ... which might seem reasonable both to the patient and to other people. However, it comes to dominate completely the person's thinking and life. ... It is quite distinct phenomenologically from both delusion and obsessional idea.

The extreme case of paranoid psychosis " ... includes preoccupation with delusional beliefs; believing that people are talking about oneself; believing one is being persecuted or being conspired against; and believing that people or external forces control one's actions."[19]

The legal issues surrounding paranoia include judgment of competence to stand trial, conditions for involuntary hospitalization, involuntary medication, and a focus upon awareness or not of unreality at the moment when the defendant "snapped".[20]

In literature

Idée fixe occurs extensively in literature.[21] Perhaps the most famous example of an idée fixe is in Cervantes's Don Quixote:[22]

Don Quixote reveals his kinship to the most commonly encountered of Cervantes's character types: the head-in-clouds fantasist, obsessed by his idée fixe.[23]

Molière also used the idée fixe repeatedly:[24]

Molière's more celebrated comic characters, Arnolphe, Orgon, Alceste, Harpagon, Monsieur Jourdain, Argan: each of them displays to the very end the obsession or idée fixe which colors his outlook on life. It is a characteristic of Molière's heroes that they are never ‘converted’: in every case the dénouement, far from curing them of their folly, merely confirms them in it.

Although Melville's Captain Ahab may come to mind as another famous example of idée fixe, and it is sometimes referred to this way,[21] more often Ahab's obsession is referred to as monomania (the more inclusive term), and Melville himself does that. It would seem from the description of Ahab's possession that idée fixe applies quite accurately, as the following description suggests:

"Not one jot of his great natural intellect had perished." ... "Yielding up all his thoughts and fancies to his one supreme purpose", Ahab has let his mind's guiding and directing power be usurped by the "sheer inveteracy" of a will driven by "one unachieved revengeful desire" (Quotes from Moby-Dick, pp. 990, 1007)
--Thomas Cooley The ivory leg in the ebony cabinet: madness, race, and gender in Victorian America[25]

However, what makes monomania the better term is that "Captain Ahab ... has an inkling of his true state of mind: 'my means are sane, my motive and my object mad.Template:' "[25]

The words idée fixe also occur explicitly: for example, in Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes:

There is the condition which the modern French psychologists have called the 'idée fixe', which may be trifling in character, and accompanied by complete sanity in every other way. A man might form such an idée fixe... and under its influence be capable of any fantastic outrage.
--Arthur Conan Doyle The return of Sherlock Holmes[26]

and in Abraham B. Yehoshua's novel about the Mani family through six generations:

...I had begun to despair of his accursed idée fixe which devoured every other idée that it encountered...
--Abraham B. Yehoshua Mr. Mani[27]

and in the account of the war on terror by George Bush's counter-terrorism chief Richard A. Clarke:

Iraq was portrayed as the most dangerous thing in national security. It was an idée fixe, a rigid belief, received wisdom, a decision already made and one that no fact or event could derail.
--Richard A Clarke Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror[28]

References

  1. ↑ Glen Fisher (1997). Mindsets: the role of culture and perception in international relations, 2nd. Intercultural Press. ISBN 1877864544. 
  2. ↑ HS Vernel (1998). Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Ter Unus: Isis, Dionysos, Hermes, 2nd. Koninklÿke Brill. ISBN 9004092668. 
  3. ↑ Jack Seward (1992). The Japanese: the often misunderstood, sometimes surprising, and always fascinating culture and lifestyles of Japan. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0844283932. 
  4. ↑ Susan Bordo (1996). “Anorexia nervosa: psychopathology as the crystallization of culture”, Mary M. Gergen, Sara N. Davis: Toward a new psychology of gender. Routledge. ISBN 041591308X. 
  5. ↑ G. E. Berrios (1996). “Note 63; page 153”, The history of mental symptoms: descriptive psychopathology since the nineteenth century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521437369. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Lennard J. Davis (2008). Obsession: a history. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226137821. 
  7. ↑ Ian Jakes (1996). “The distinction between obsessional and psychotic thinking”, Theoretical approaches to obsessive-compulsive disorder. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521460581. 
  8. ↑ (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR, 4rth. American Psychiatric Society. ISBN 0890420254. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Femi Oyebode (2008). “Paranoid personality disorder”, Sims' Symptoms in the mind: an introduction to descriptive psychopathology, Updated 4th. Saunders Ltd. ISBN 0702028851. 
  10. ↑ For example, Raymond J. Corsini (2002). The dictionary of psychology. Psychology Press. ISBN 1583913289. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Michael Clark, Catherine Crawford (1994). Legal medicine in history. Cambridge University Press, pp. 214 ff. ISBN 0521395143. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Alan Felthous, Henning Sass (2008). International Handbook on Psychopathic Disorders and the Law. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0470066385. 
  13. ↑ Ann-Louise Shapiro (1996). Breaking the codes: female criminality in fin-de-siècle Paris. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804726930. 
  14. ↑ Daniel Hack Tuke (1892). A Dictionary of psychological medicine: giving the definition, etymology and synonyms of the terms used in medical psychology with the symptoms, treatment, and pathology of insanity and the law of lunacy in Great Britain and Ireland, Volume 2. J. & A. Churchill. “Some of the French alienists extend the use of the term [imperative idea] to actual delusion (idée fixe ), as for instance, ideas of persecution. but it is to be hoped that [imperative idea] will be carefully restricted to that intellectual tyranny which the individual deplores and is not deluded by.” 
  15. ↑ F Raymond, Pierre Janet (1900). “Névroses et Idées Fixes”, Mind, Volume 9. Oxford University Press, pp. 94ff. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Jan E. Goldstein (2002). Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226301613. 
  17. ↑ Dorothea E. von Mücke (2003). The seduction of the occult and the rise of the fantastic tale. Stanford University Press, pp. 114 ff. ISBN 0804738602. 
  18. ↑ Thomas Welburn Hughes (1919). A treatise on criminal law and procedure. Bobbs-Merrill. 
  19. ↑ Stephen M. Stahl (2008). “Psychosis and schizophrenia”, Stahl's essential psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific basis and practical applications, 3rd. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521857023. 
  20. ↑ Martin Kantor (2004). “Chapter 8: Forensic issues”, Understanding paranoia: a guide for professionals, families, and sufferers. Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 91 ff. ISBN 0275981525. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Marina Van Zuylen (2005). Monomania: the flight from everyday life in literature and art. Cornell University Press, pp. 10, 38, 64, 68 .... ISBN 0801442982. 
  22. ↑ John Farrell (2006). Paranoia and modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau. Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801444101. 
  23. ↑ Anthony J. Close (1990). Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521313457. 
  24. ↑ William Driver Howarth (1982). Molière, a playwright and his audience. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521286794. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Thomas Cooley (2001). The ivory leg in the ebony cabinet: madness, race, and gender in Victorian America. University of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 1558492844.  Page numbers refer to Herman Melville (1983). G Thomas Tanselle: Moby-Dick, or the Whale, Reprint of the 1851 Northwestern-Newberry. Library of America. ISBN 0940450097. 
  26. ↑ Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (2003). “The return of Sherlock Holmes”, Kyle Freeman: The complete Sherlock Holmes, Volume 1 Barnes & Noble Classics. Spark Educational Publishing. ISBN 1593080409. 
  27. ↑ Abraham B. Yehoshua (1993). Mr. Mani, Hillel Halkin translation. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0156627698. 
  28. ↑ Richard A Clarke (2004). Against All Enemies: Inside America's War on Terror. Free Press. ISBN 0743260457. 
Retrieved from "https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=User:John_R._Brews/Sample&oldid=817372"