User:John R. Brews/Sample: Difference between revisions
imported>John R. Brews No edit summary |
imported>John R. Brews No edit summary |
||
| Line 2: | Line 2: | ||
[[User:John R. Brews/Sample/Talk|Link to Talk page]] | [[User:John R. Brews/Sample/Talk|Link to Talk page]] | ||
In [[physics]] and [[chemistry]], <b>charge</b> is fundamentally related to [[field]]s and [[force]]s, | In [[physics]] and [[chemistry]], <b>charge</b> is fundamentally related to [[field]]s and [[force]]s, and is a property of pieces of matter that leads to attraction to (or repulsion from) spatially separate pieces of matter that likewise manifest that particular property. There are a wide variety of such charges, including the [[electric charge]] underlying [[electric current]] that enters [[Maxwell's equations]] for the [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic field]], [[color charge]] that enters the [[Quantum chromodynamics|chromodynamic forces]], [[mass]] that enters [[gravitation]] and a number of others.<ref name=Burgess/> | ||
These charges are ''conserved'' quantities and are related to currents describing their ''flux'' or motion. The ''conservation law'' relating the charge to its current is of the form: | These charges are ''conserved'' quantities and are related to currents describing their ''flux'' or motion. The ''conservation law'' relating the charge to its current is of the form: | ||
Revision as of 08:34, 21 August 2011
In physics and chemistry, charge is fundamentally related to fields and forces, and is a property of pieces of matter that leads to attraction to (or repulsion from) spatially separate pieces of matter that likewise manifest that particular property. There are a wide variety of such charges, including the electric charge underlying electric current that enters Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic field, color charge that enters the chromodynamic forces, mass that enters gravitation and a number of others.[1]
These charges are conserved quantities and are related to currents describing their flux or motion. The conservation law relating the charge to its current is of the form:
where div is the vector divergence operator, J is the vector current density, and ρ is the charge density. For a volume enclosed by a surface, this equation can be expressed by the statement that any change in the charge contained inside the closed surface is due to a current of said charge either entering or exiting through that surface.
Such conservation laws are examples of Noether's theorem, which states that every symmetry of a physical theory is related to a conservation law of this kind. The best known of these conservation laws are the conservation of momentum, related to translational symmetry of the laws of mechanics, and conservation of angular momentum, related to the rotational symmetry of the laws of mechanics. Such symmetries are intuitive, but some symmetries are quite non-intuitive.
In electrodynamics, two types of charge are known, magnetic and electric. The distinguishing property of electric charge is that electric charges can be isolated, while while an isolated magnetic charge or magnetic monopole never has been observed.[2][3][4][5] Electric charges interact with magnetic charges only when in relative motion one to the other.
In the physics of quantum chromodynamics, the successor to quantum elecrodynamics, color charge is recognized as a property of quarks.[6] Similar to magnetic charge, color is not seen directly, as all observable particles have no overall color.[7] Color charge causes interaction between charged entities via the chromoforce, also called the color force. As with electric and magnetic charge, color charge can be multiple valued, conventionally called red, green or blue. Color charge is not assigned a numerical value; however, a superposition in equal amounts of all three colors leads to a "neutral" color charge, a somewhat stretched analogy with the superposition of red, green and blue light to produce white light.[8] Thus, protons and neutrons, which consist of three quarks with all three colors are color-charge neutral. Quark combinations are held together by exchange of combinations of eight different gluons that also are color charged.[9][10][11][12]
The color charges of antiquarks are anticolors. The combination of a quark and an antiquark to form a meson, such as a pion, kaon and so forth, leads to a neutral color charge.
Another charge in elementary particle theory is the baryonic charge, B, with value +1 for all baryons and −1 for all antibaryons and zero for non-baryons. Unlike electric charge, which serves as a source for the electromagnetic field, baryon charge is not related to an associated "baryonic" field.[13]
Finally, we mention the leptonic charge carried by electrons and neutrinos.[8] Lepton charge also is referred to as a flavor[14] Le, Lμ, Lτ with values +1 for the electron, muon and tau meson, and −1 for their antiparticles.[13] The total lepton flavor L of a complex is:
Non-leptons have a total lepton flavor L of zero. Lepton charge is not necessarily conserved in particle reactions.[13]p. 38
References
- ↑ Mark Burgess (2004). “Chapter 12: Charge and current”, Classical covariant fields. Cambridge University Press, pp. 325 ff. ISBN 0521813638.
- ↑ Douglas C. Giancoli. Physics for scientists and engineers with modern physics, 4rth ed. Pearson Education, p. 708. ISBN 0132273594.
- ↑ Gibilisco S. (2005). “Chapter 2: Charge, current, voltage”, Electricity Demystified. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0071439250. An entry level account by Stan Gibilisco, an electronics engineer and mathematician, author of numerous technical books on electronics and mathematics.
- ↑ Glenn Elert (1998-2010). The electric charge: Summary. The Physics Hypertextbook. Retrieved on 2011-07-27.
- ↑ Glenn Elert (1998-2010). The electric charge: Discussion. The Physics Hypertextbook. Retrieved on 2011-07-27.
- ↑ Stephen Webb (2004). Out of this world: colliding universes, branes, strings, and other wild ideas of modern physics. Springer, p. 190. ISBN 0387029303.
- ↑ Andrew Watson (2004). The quantum quark. Cambridge University Press, pp. 170 ff. ISBN 0521829070.
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 M. Y. Han (1999). Quarks and gluons: a century of particle charges. World Scientific, p. 116. ISBN 9810237456.
- ↑ Joe Rosen (2004). Encyclopedia of physics. Infobase Publishing, p. 85. ISBN 0816049742.
- ↑ Joe Rosen, Lisa Quinn Gothard (2009). Encyclopedia of Physical Science, Volume 1. Infobase Publishing, p. 278. ISBN 0816070113.
- ↑ (2009) “Quantum chromodynamics (QCD)”, Daniel M. Greenberger, Klaus Hentschel, Friedel Weinert: Compendium of Quantum Physics: Concepts, Experiments, History and Philosophy. Springer, pp. 524 ff. ISBN 3540706224.
- ↑ OW Greenberg (2008). "The color charge degree of freedom in particle physics". Chapter in Greenberger et al. below.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 O. M. Boyarkin, Alfred L. Heinzerton (2007). Introduction to Physics of Elementary Particles. Nova Publishers, pp. 39-40. ISBN 160021200X.
- ↑ Paul Allen Tipler (2007). “Summary table”, Physics for scientists and engineers: Elementary modern physics, Volume 3, 6th ed. Macmillan, p. 1409. ISBN 1429201347.