Recovered memory/Bibliography

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• Brown, Scheflin and Hammond (1998). Memory, Trauma Treatment, And the Law. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-70254-5. 
• Schacter, D.L. (2000). Memory, brain and belief. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 

• Geraerts E et al.2009 Cognitive mechanisms underlying recovered-memory experiences of childhood sexual abuse. Psychol Sci. 20:92-8. PMID 19037903(People sometimes report recovering long-forgotten memories of childhood sexual abuse. The memory mechanisms that lead to such reports are not well understood, and the authenticity of recovered memories has often been challenged. ... recovered memories may at times be fictitious and may at other times be authentic.)(see also Geraerts E, McNally RJ.(2008) Forgetting unwanted memories: directed forgetting and thought suppression methods. Acta Psychol (Amst) 127:614-22. PMID 18164273)

• Loftus EF, Davis D (2006) Recovered memories. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2:469-98. PMID 17716079 (The issues surrounding repressed, recovered, or false memories have sparked one of the greatest controversies in the mental health profession in the twentieth century. We review evidence concerning the existence of the repression and recovery of autobiographical memories of traumatic events and research on the development of false autobiographical memories, how specific therapeutic procedures can lead to false memories)

• Pezdek K, Lam S (2007) What research paradigms have cognitive psychologists used to study "false memory," and what are the implications of these choices? Conscious Cogn 16:2-17. PMID 16157490 (This research examines the methodologies employed by cognitive psychologists to study "false memory," and assesses if these methodologies are likely to facilitate scientific progress or perhaps constrain the conclusions reached. A PsycINFO search of the empirical publications in cognitive psychology was conducted through January, 2004, using the subject heading, "false memory." The search produced 198 articles. Although there is an apparent false memory research bandwagon in cognitive psychology, with increasing numbers of studies published on this topic over the past decade, few researchers (only 13.1% of the articles) have studied false memory as the term was originally intended--to specifically refer to planting memory for an entirely new event that was never experienced in an individual's lifetime. Cognitive psychologists interested in conducting research relevant to assessing the authenticity of memories for child sexual abuse should consider the generalizability of their research to the planting of entirely new events in memory.) See Comment in:

Conscious Cogn 2007 Mar;16(1):18-28; discussion 29-30.

• Laney C, Loftus EF (2005) Traumatic memories are not necessarily accurate memories. Can J Psychiatry 50:823-8. PMID 16483115 (Some therapists, as well as other commentators, have suggested that memories of horrific trauma are buried in the subconscious by some special process, such as repression, and are later reliably recovered. We find that the evidence provided to support this claim is flawed. Where, then, might these memory reports come from? We discuss several research paradigms that have shown that various manipulations can be used to implant false memories--including false memories for traumatic events. These false memories can be quite compelling for those who develop them and can include details that make them seem credible to others. The fact that a memory report describes a traumatic event does not ensure that the memory is authentic.)

• Porter S et al.(2001) Memory for murder. A psychological perspective on dissociative amnesia in legal contexts.Int J Law Psychiatry 24:23-42. PMID 11346990 (...The uncritical acceptance of the validity of repressed memories in complainants by many courts stands in stark contrast to the response to claims of amnesia from defendants. It seems apparent that the courts need better guidelines around the issue of dissociative amnesia in both populations. We think that the increasing scientific understanding of memory in the past decade (see Schacter, 1999) can meaningfully contribute to the development of such guidelines. Responsible, nonpartisan expert testimony from mental health professionals would be one step in the direction of rectifying the current state of law in regards to dissociation.)

• Boakes J. (1999) False complaints of sexual assault: recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Med Sci Law 39:112-20. PMID 10332158

• Brewin CR, Andrews B (1998) Recovered memories of trauma: phenomenology and cognitive mechanisms. Clin Psychol Rev Dec;18(8):949-70.(We outline four current explanations for the reported forgetting of traumatic events, namely repression, dissociation, ordinary forgetting, and false memory. We then review the clinical and survey evidence on recovered memories, and consider experimental evidence that a variety of inhibitory processes are involved in everyday cognitive activity including forgetting. The data currently available do not allow any of the four explanations to be rejected, and strongly support the likelihood that some recovered memories correspond to actual experiences. We propose replacing the terms repression and dissociation as explanations of forgetting with an account based on cognitive science.

PMID 9885769

• Zola SM (1998) Memory, amnesia, and the issue of recovered memory: neurobiological aspects. Clin Psychol Rev 18:915-32. (the debate about the credibility of "recovered memories"--reports by adults of recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse and trauma that were allegedly repressed for many years--can be usefully informed by considering the biological and behavioral facts and ideas about how memory works. Accordingly, the first section of this review describes current facts and ideas about the neurobiology and neuropsychology of memory and amnesia, including what parts of the brain are important for memory, distinctions between different memory systems in the brain, and the phenomena of infantile amnesia and source amnesia. The second section takes into account the information about the biological and behavioral bases of memory and addresses two questions about memory that have become a focus of debate in the recovered memory controversy, that is, whether memories for traumatic events change over time, and whether memories can be created for traumatic events that did not actually happen.)

PMID: 9885767

• Stocks JT (1998) Recovered memory therapy: a dubious practice technique. Soc Work 43:423-36 PMID 9739631(This article examines the validity of memory work as well as the evidence for the efficacy of therapeutic interventions based in the recovery of childhood sexual abuse memories. Evidence suggests that both true and false memories can be recovered using memory work techniques, and there is no evidence that reliable discriminations can be made between them. Similarly, there is no empirical evidence to suggest that recovered memory therapy results in improved outcomes for participating clients. The article reviews current treatment outcome research and suggests that participation in recovered memory therapy may be harmful to clients.)

• Brandon S et al. (1998) Recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse. Implications for clinical practice.Br J Psychiatry 172:296-307. PMID 9722329 (The growth in the USA of 'recovered memory therapy' for past sexual abuse has caused great public and professional concern. It became apparent that the polarisation of views and fierce controversy within the American psychiatric community was in danger of bringing psychotherapy into disrepute and it seemed important to examine objectively the scientific evidence before such polarisation developed in the UK. METHOD: A small working group reviewed their own experience, visited meetings and centres with expertise in this field, interviewed 'retractors' and accused parents, and then began a comprehensive review of the literature. RESULTS: There is a vast literature but little acceptable research. Opinions are expressed with great conviction but often unsupported by evidence. CONCLUSIONS: The issue of false or recovered memories should not be allowed to confuse the recognition and treatment of sexually abused children. We concluded that when memories are 'recovered' after long periods of amnesia, particularly when extraordinary means were used to secure the recovery of memory, there is a high probability that the memories are false, i.e. of incidents that had not occurred. Some guidelines which should enable practitioners to avoid the pitfalls of memory recovery are offered.)

• Kihlstrom JF (1997) Hypnosis, memory and amnesia. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 29:3521727-32. PMID 9415925 (Hypnotized subjects respond to suggestions from the hypnotist for imaginative experiences involving alterations in perception and memory. Individual differences in hypnotizability are only weakly related to other forms of suggestibility. Neuropsychological speculations about hypnosis focus on the right hemisphere and/or the frontal lobes. Posthypnotic amnesia refers to subjects' difficulty in remembering, after hypnosis, the events and experiences that transpired while they were hypnotized. Posthypnotic amnesia is not an instance of state-dependent memory, but it does seem to involve a disruption of retrieval processes similar to the functional amnesias observed in clinical dissociative disorders. Implicit memory, however, is largely spared, and may underlie subjects' ability to recognize events that they cannot recall. Hypnotic hypermnesia refers to improved memory for past events. However, such improvements are illusory: hypermnesia suggestions increase false recollection, as well as subjects' confidence in both true and false memories. Hypnotic age regression can be subjectively compelling, but does not involve the ablation of adult memory, or the reinstatement of childlike modes of mental functioning, or the revivification of memory. The clinical and forensic use of hypermnesia and age regression to enhance memory in patients, victims and witnesses (e.g. recovered memory therapy for child sexual abuse) should be discouraged.)

• Gutheil TG, Simon RI (1997) Clinically based risk management principles for recovered memory cases. Psychiatr Serv 48:1403-7 PMID 9355166 (Controversy over cases involving so-called recovered memories of sexual abuse has threatened to divide the mental health field, just as lawsuits based on recovered memories have sometimes divided children from parents and others. The authors review issues in this controversy, including the role of misdirected advocacy for recovered memory by some practitioners, the distinction between the actual events and patient's narrative truth as a factor in the therapeutic alliance, and the contrast between therapeutic and legal remedies. They recommend nine clinically based risk management principles to guide clinicians in dealing with cases involving recovered memory. They include the need for documentation and consultation; the value of psychotherapeutic neutrality, maintaining a calm perspective, and understanding the difference between historical and narrative truth; the incompatibility of the roles of treater and forensic expert; the risks of special therapies such as hypnosis; awareness of the roles of other professionals and the significance of the patient's family; and the importance of knowing when to end treatment.)