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A '''mêchanê''' (''μηχανῆ'') was a [[Crane (machine)|crane]] used in ancient [[Ancient Greek Theater|Greek]] and [[ | A '''mêchanê''' (''μηχανῆ'', plural: ''mêchanai'') was a [[Crane (machine)|crane]] used in ancient [[Ancient Greek Theater|Greek]] and [[Theater of ancient Rome|Roman theater]] and was probably in wide use since the fourth century BC. Made of wooden beams and pulley systems, the ''mêchanê'' was used to lift a harnessed actor into the air, whenever the plot required a character to fly. Since it had to carry considerable weights, the device was probably supported by the projection of stone which extended into the ''orchestra'' from the terrace wall, and affixed to one of the posts which supported the ''[[skene]]''.<ref>"Introduction to Greek Stagecraft", in ''Didaskalia'', Berkeley 2002</ref> The stage machine was later used to also bring gods onto the stage from above,<ref name="Greek mêchanê sources">[[Plato]], ''Cratylus'' 425d; ''Clitophon'' 407a</ref> hence the Latin term [[Deus ex machina|''deus ex machina'']] ("god from the machine").<ref name="Entrance of gods">The ''mêchanê'' as a means for introducing a ''deus ex machina'' onto the stage was probably not in widespread use before the 4th century BC: "Gods who intervene in fifth century tragedies probably appeared through a trap-door on the roof of the ''skene'' to address mortals from a higher level." (Roger Dunkle, [http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/tragedy/index.htm ''Introduction to Greek Tragedy''])</ref> The ''mêchanê'' was used in tragedies and comedies alike. | ||
The earliest known use of the device is possibly found in [[The Oresteia#The Eumenides|''The Eumenides'']] by [[Aeschylus]], who utilized several theater machines for the staging of his tragedy, including the ''mêchanê'', on which he placed the god [[Apollo (mythology)|Apollo]]. [[Euripides]]' use of the ''mêchanê'' in ''[[Medea (play)|Medea]]'' ([[431 BC]]) is a notable early application of the machine for a non-divine character, providing a means of escape for [[Medea]] from [[Corinth]] after she murders her children. It was used by Euripides to possibly symbolize the underestimated power of Medea's evilness.<ref>Maurice P. Cunningham, "Medea Aπο Mηχανης", in ''Classical Philology'', Vol. 49, No. 3, 1954, pp. 151–160</ref> [[Sophocles]] in his old age utilized the ''mêchanê'' to introduce [[Heracles]] at the end of [[Philoctetes (Sophocles)|''Philoctetes'']] to induce the title character to leave for Troy. | |||
Stage machines were also used in ancient [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], e.g. during the sometimes highly dramatic performances at [[Roman Funerals and Burial|funerals]]. For [[Julius Caesar's funeral]] service [[Appian]] reports a ''mêchanê'' that was used to present a blood-stained wax [[Effigy|effigy]] of the deceased [[dictator]] to the funeral crowd. The ''mêchanê'' was rotated to present the body in all directions.<ref name="Mêchanê at Caesar's funeral">Appian, ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/2*.html#147 2.147]: ''τὸ μὲν γὰρ σῶμα, ὡς ὕπτιον ἐπὶ λέχους, οὐχ ἑωρᾶτο. τὸ δὲ ἀνδρείκελον ἐκ μηχανῆς ἐπεστρέφετο πάντῃ''. Appian's ''mêchanê'' | Stage machines were also used in ancient [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], e.g. during the sometimes highly dramatic performances at [[Roman Funerals and Burial|funerals]]. For [[Julius Caesar's funeral]] service [[Appian]] reports a ''mêchanê'' that was used to present a blood-stained wax [[Effigy|effigy]] of the deceased [[dictator]] to the funeral crowd. The ''mêchanê'' was rotated to present the body in all directions.<ref name="Mêchanê at Caesar's funeral">Appian, ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/2*.html#147 2.147]: ''τὸ μὲν γὰρ σῶμα, ὡς ὕπτιον ἐπὶ λέχους, οὐχ ἑωρᾶτο. τὸ δὲ ἀνδρείκελον ἐκ μηχανῆς ἐπεστρέφετο πάντῃ''. Appian's ''mêchanê'' probably describes the device (or part of the device) that [[Suetonius]] rendered as the [[Tropaeum|''tropaeum'']], which was covered by Caesar's blood-stained robe and to which possibly also the effigy (''simulacrum'') was affixed. (''Divus Iulius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#84 84]; here ''tropaeum'' has been erroneously translated as "pillar".)</ref> [[Geoffrey S. Sumi|Geoffrey Sumi]] proposed that the use of the ''mêchanê'' "hinted at [[Divus Iulius|Caesar's divinity]]".<ref name="Sumi source">Geoffrey S. Sumi, ''Ceremony and Power. Performing Politics in Rome between Republic and Empire'', Ann Arbor 2005, pp. 107–109, chapter: "Caesar ex machina", ISBN 978-0-472-11517-4</ref> This is highly unlikely because Appian doesn't describe the ''mêchanê'' as a genuine ''deus-ex-machina'' device. Furthermore Caesar's [[apotheosis]] wasn't legally conducted until [[42 BC]], and [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] had only been worshipped inofficially as [[Divus|''divus'']] during his lifetime. First and foremost [[Mark Antony]], who functioned as [[Choregos|''choregós'']] and probably as master of ceremonies during the funeral, attempted to arouse the masses as a means to strengthen Caesar's esteem as well as his own political power.<ref name="Consequences">The fact that Caesar's [[Resurrection|''resurrectio'']] as god was believed to have happened later during the funeral as he was [[Cremation|cremated]], and that it spawned the early Caesarian cult by the [[Gaius Marius (Pseudo-Marius)|Pseudo-Marius]], can't explain Antony's intentions for using a ''mêchanê'' during the funeral, since the cremation occured after the fact.</ref> | ||
In [[Christian]] [[Christian liturgy|liturgy]] the ''mêchanê'' has been identified with the [[Christian cross|cross]]. [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] calls the cross the "theater machine" of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]].<ref name="Ignatius source">Ignatius of Antioch, ''Letter to the Ephesians'' IX 1: ''ἀναφερόμενοι εἰς τὰ ὕψη διὰ τῆς μηχανῆς Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, ὅς ἐστιν σταυρός''.</ref> The theatrical character of the Christian cross is still visible in the slanted ''suppedanum'' ("footrest") of the original [[Patriarchal_cross|''Crux Orthodoxa'']], which indicates the rotating movement of the cross that had been very prominent in depictions of the Christ's [[crucifixion]] especially in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]], but also in the [[Roman Catholic Church|Western Church]] until early [[Baroque]], e.g. on the famous [[Isenheim Altarpiece]] by [[Matthias Grünewald]]. | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
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==See also== | ==See also== | ||
* [[ | * ''[[Ekkyklema]]'' | ||
* [[ | * [[Theater of ancient Greece]] | ||
* [[Theater of ancient Rome]] | |||
* [[Deus ex machina]] | * [[Deus ex machina]] | ||
* [[Caesar's funeral]] | * [[Caesar's funeral]] | ||
Revision as of 17:32, 20 July 2007
A mêchanê (μηχανῆ, plural: mêchanai) was a crane used in ancient Greek and Roman theater and was probably in wide use since the fourth century BC. Made of wooden beams and pulley systems, the mêchanê was used to lift a harnessed actor into the air, whenever the plot required a character to fly. Since it had to carry considerable weights, the device was probably supported by the projection of stone which extended into the orchestra from the terrace wall, and affixed to one of the posts which supported the skene.[1] The stage machine was later used to also bring gods onto the stage from above,[2] hence the Latin term deus ex machina ("god from the machine").[3] The mêchanê was used in tragedies and comedies alike.
The earliest known use of the device is possibly found in The Eumenides by Aeschylus, who utilized several theater machines for the staging of his tragedy, including the mêchanê, on which he placed the god Apollo. Euripides' use of the mêchanê in Medea (431 BC) is a notable early application of the machine for a non-divine character, providing a means of escape for Medea from Corinth after she murders her children. It was used by Euripides to possibly symbolize the underestimated power of Medea's evilness.[4] Sophocles in his old age utilized the mêchanê to introduce Heracles at the end of Philoctetes to induce the title character to leave for Troy.
Stage machines were also used in ancient Rome, e.g. during the sometimes highly dramatic performances at funerals. For Julius Caesar's funeral service Appian reports a mêchanê that was used to present a blood-stained wax effigy of the deceased dictator to the funeral crowd. The mêchanê was rotated to present the body in all directions.[5] Geoffrey Sumi proposed that the use of the mêchanê "hinted at Caesar's divinity".[6] This is highly unlikely because Appian doesn't describe the mêchanê as a genuine deus-ex-machina device. Furthermore Caesar's apotheosis wasn't legally conducted until 42 BC, and Caesar had only been worshipped inofficially as divus during his lifetime. First and foremost Mark Antony, who functioned as choregós and probably as master of ceremonies during the funeral, attempted to arouse the masses as a means to strengthen Caesar's esteem as well as his own political power.[7]
In Christian liturgy the mêchanê has been identified with the cross. Ignatius calls the cross the "theater machine" of Jesus Christ.[8] The theatrical character of the Christian cross is still visible in the slanted suppedanum ("footrest") of the original Crux Orthodoxa, which indicates the rotating movement of the cross that had been very prominent in depictions of the Christ's crucifixion especially in the Orthodox Church, but also in the Western Church until early Baroque, e.g. on the famous Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grünewald.
References
- ↑ "Introduction to Greek Stagecraft", in Didaskalia, Berkeley 2002
- ↑ Plato, Cratylus 425d; Clitophon 407a
- ↑ The mêchanê as a means for introducing a deus ex machina onto the stage was probably not in widespread use before the 4th century BC: "Gods who intervene in fifth century tragedies probably appeared through a trap-door on the roof of the skene to address mortals from a higher level." (Roger Dunkle, Introduction to Greek Tragedy)
- ↑ Maurice P. Cunningham, "Medea Aπο Mηχανης", in Classical Philology, Vol. 49, No. 3, 1954, pp. 151–160
- ↑ Appian, Civil Wars 2.147: τὸ μὲν γὰρ σῶμα, ὡς ὕπτιον ἐπὶ λέχους, οὐχ ἑωρᾶτο. τὸ δὲ ἀνδρείκελον ἐκ μηχανῆς ἐπεστρέφετο πάντῃ. Appian's mêchanê probably describes the device (or part of the device) that Suetonius rendered as the tropaeum, which was covered by Caesar's blood-stained robe and to which possibly also the effigy (simulacrum) was affixed. (Divus Iulius 84; here tropaeum has been erroneously translated as "pillar".)
- ↑ Geoffrey S. Sumi, Ceremony and Power. Performing Politics in Rome between Republic and Empire, Ann Arbor 2005, pp. 107–109, chapter: "Caesar ex machina", ISBN 978-0-472-11517-4
- ↑ The fact that Caesar's resurrectio as god was believed to have happened later during the funeral as he was cremated, and that it spawned the early Caesarian cult by the Pseudo-Marius, can't explain Antony's intentions for using a mêchanê during the funeral, since the cremation occured after the fact.
- ↑ Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians IX 1: ἀναφερόμενοι εἰς τὰ ὕψη διὰ τῆς μηχανῆς Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, ὅς ἐστιν σταυρός.