Jesus: Difference between revisions

From Citizendium
Jump to navigation Jump to search
imported>Bei Dawei
mNo edit summary
 
(380 intermediate revisions by 36 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
'''Jesus''' was a [[Palestina | Palestinian]] [[Jew]]ish religious figure who was executed by the [[Roman Empire | Roman]] government by [[crucifixion]] around AD 30 or 33. He is remembered as the (perhaps unwitting) founder of [[Christianity]], and as a [[prophet]] of [[Islam]].
{{subpages}}


Almost every aspect of his life is either unknown or disputed. A minimalist view would accept the description of Jesus as a wandering, [[charisma]]tic teacher active around [[Galilee]] and [[Judea]]. He received [[baptism]] from [[John the Baptist]]; spoke before crowds; performed [[spiritual healing]]s and [[exorcism]]s (setting aside the question of whether any [[supernatural]] aspect was involved); and attracted [[disciple]]s.  
By virtue of the impact of [[Christianity]], '''Jesus''' (also known as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth) is one of the most influential people in [[history]]. European [[literature]], [[art]] and [[music]] would be unimaginable without their Christian heritage, and translations of the Christian [[Bible]] number among the foundational literature of many languages. Most of the world now follows the [[Gregorian calendar]], based on the supposed number of years since Jesus' birth.


Christian tradition adds that his mother [[Mary]] was a [[Virgin Birth | Virgin]]; that he performed [[miracle]]s; that he claimed to be, and was, the [[Messiah]] (Greek ''Christos'', whence the title [[Christ]]); that his life fulfilled [[Old Testament]] [[List of Christian claims of fulfilled Old Testament prophecies | prophecies]]; and that he [[resurrection | rose from the dead]] and [[ascension | ascended]] into heaven, from whence he will one day [[Second Coming | return]]. Most Christians worship Jesus as the [[Son of God]], and as [[God]] [[incarnation | incarnate]], the Second Person of the [[Trinity]], and look to him for the [[salvation]] of their [[soul]]s.
The question "Who was Jesus?" seems a simple one, yet the answers which have been proposed defy easy summary. Most people regard him as the founder of Christianity. Christians (with some exceptions) worship him as God [[incarnation|incarnate]], the Second Person of the [[Trinity]]. [[Islam|Muslims]] recognize Jesus as one of the prophets of Islam, without attributing divinity to him. Even [[humanism|humanists]] who reject the religious claims, or who doubt the [[miracles]] attributed to him, have been known to admire Jesus as a great moral teacher.  [[Mormonism|Mormons]] believe that Jesus came to [[North America]] and preached to the inhabitants after leaving [[Judea]]. [[Judaism|Jews]] do not believe that Jesus was divine, nor that he was the Messiah or a prophet.


The [[Qur'an]] recognizes Jesus ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''[[Islamic view of Jesus|Isa]]'') as one of the most important [[prophets of Islam|prophets]] of Islam, and as a bringer of a divine scripture (which is not necessarily part of the extant [[New Testament]]). Muslims accept the [[Virgin Birth]], and agree that Jesus is the [[messiah]], but reject any attribution of divinity to him. Many Muslims doubt the [[crucifixion]], and hold that Jesus will [[Islamic eschatology|return to the earth]] in the company of the [[Mahdi]].
Among historians, almost every aspect of Jesus' life is either unknown or disputed. Most scholars would accept the description of him as a first-century Palestinian Jew--more specifically, as an itinerant preacher/healer/exorcist active in [[Galilee]] and Judea. We may be reasonably confident that he was baptized by [[John the Baptist]] in the AD 20s, and crucified at the command of Roman governor [[Pontius Pilate]] during the late 20s or early 30s AD. With less certainty, scholars have characterized Jesus as a wisdom teacher; a social reformer; a rabbi; a folk magician; or an apocalyptic who expected the world to end. Especially controversial would be the suggestions that he intended to found the religion of Christianity, or that he believed (or declared) himself to be the Messiah.  


Thanks largely to such commemorations, Jesus has become one of the most consequential individuals who ever lived. The history of European art and music would be unimaginable without the inspiration of Christianity. Translations of the [[New Testament]] number among the foundational literature of numerous languages, including [[English language | English]]. Major holidays celebrating his life, such as [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]], are celebrated internationally; and most of the world calculates the year date according to the [[Gregorian calendar]], which attempts to measure the number of years elapsed since Jesus's birth.  
==Name==
Jesus has the same name as Old Testament hero [[Joshua]], whose Hebrew name ''Yehoshua'' (יהושוע) becomes ''Yeshua'' (ישוע) in [[Aramaic]] (Jesus' native language). [[Koine Greek|Greek]] being the lingua franca of the Roman Empire as well as early Christianity, ''Yeshua'' came to be rendered as ''Iesous'' (''Ιησους''). It entered English by way of Latin (''Iēsus''). <ref>John P. Meier, ''A Marginal Jew''. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205-7</ref>


==The Historical Jesus==
''Christ'' is a title and not a part of his name. ''Christos'' (''χριστος'') is the Greek translation for the Hebrew ''[[Moshiach]]'' ("Messiah"), and literally means "anointed one." The original reference was to the family of ceremonies for crowning a king, or ordaining a prophet, which involved pouring oil upon the head. Whether these and other titles were used during his lifetime, or by him, and what they might have meant, are all uncertain.


The major historical difficulty concerning Jesus is that the most important sources of information are works of sectarian propaganda, especially the four canonical [[gospel]]s. As historical sources, they suffer from the following shortcomings:
Jesus is often referred to as "Jesus of Nazareth," after the town where he grew up, sometimes as a secular alternative to "Jesus Christ."


*Their authors are not known (despite the titles assigned to them by church tradition); thus we have no way of knowing whether or how an author acquired his information.
==Dates==
*Their composition appears to involve multiple authorship (e.g., the [[synoptic gospels]] share much material, albeit rearranged) and an active editorial process.
None of the historical sources give the year of Jesus' birth, the year of his death, or his age at death in unambiguous form. Tradition says that he was born towards the end of the reign of [[Herod]] the Great, who died in 4 BC. Some of the earliest estimates of his birth are 6-7 BC, and it is widely agreed that  Jesus was executed during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (AD 26-36). Biblical scholars believe he lived roughly 33 1/2 years. Recent scholarship has focused on the years AD 29, 30, or 33 as the most likely possibilities of the date of his crucifixion.
*They appear to have been written at least a generation after Jesus's death. ([[Gospel of Mark | Mark]], the oldest, is usually dated around AD 68.)
*No first-century mss are extant.
*They affirm numerous supernatural events, which in the eyes of many historians is ''prima facia'' evidence for their unreliability.
*Their authors were obviously committed believers, not disinterested observers.
*Some details (such as the census mentioned in Luke 2:1) conflict with what we know of the history of the time.
*They show signs of prefering theological suitability to factual accuracy. For example, [[Gospel of Matthew | Matthew]] (21:1 ff) describes Jesus as entering Jerusalem while seated on not one but ''two'' animals, a donkey and a colt--an unlikely mode of transport which seems to represent a misunderstanding of [[Zachariah]] 9:9, (a messianic prophecy quoted by Matthew).  
*Some details appear to have been inspired by [[Old Testament]] stories. For example, Elisha's miracles in 2 Kings 4 - 6 parallel the miracles of Christ in Matthew 8 and 9.


Aside from the canonical gospels, several ancient authors who were not Christians ([[Flavius Josephus]], [[Pliny the Younger]]) mention Jesus; however, their knowledge is likely to be second-hand. [[Saint Paul]] apparently met some of Jesus's relatives and companions (though not Jesus himself); unfortunately, his [[epistle]]s offer almost no biographical details. Noncanonical Christian literature is voluminous but relatively late, with the possible exception of the [[Gospel of Thomas]].  
==Sources==
The major source of historical knowledge about Jesus is the Christian Gospels, which are based on documents written within living memory of the events described in them. The Letters of [[St Paul]], which are older than the Gospels, also attest to the historical reality of Jesus. There are no contemporary references to Jesus from non-Christian sources, although there are a few from the following decades, in writers such as [[Tacitus]] and [[Pliny the Younger]]. Some writers therefore deny that Jesus was a historical figure at all.  


Such problems with sources have led a few scholars to deny that Jesus ever existed at all. In this view, the story of Jesus would be entirely mythical, of a piece with various other Near Eastern deities who experienced virgin birth and / or resurrection from the dead. This view, however, has not won wide support.  
'''The [[canonical gospels]]'''--[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], and [[Gospel of John|John]]--are religious biographies that stress Jesus' fulfillment of [[Old Testament]] [[prophecy]], his teachings on the Kingdom of God or Kingdom of Heaven, and the miracles which attended his life and death. The oldest of these, Mark, is usually dated to within a few years of AD 70. John is generally regarded as the latest, though the dates proposed for it vary widely (from the AD 70's to the early 2nd century). The four are linked not only by having been selected by the early church for preservation and dissemination, but also through their textual history. In particular, the synoptics (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) share much material (often verbatim), albeit rearranged.


A major counter-argument is the [[Criteron of Dissimilarity]]. This principle holds that a gospel detail which early Christians would have found embarrassing, is more likely to be true. An example would be Jesus's execution as a criminal, a rather disturbing element not included in any known [[Jewish traditions of the Messiah]]. Were Jesus entirely fictional, his story would surely have ended differently. Therefore (a) Jesus really was executed, and as a corollary, (b) Jesus really existed. Other details which fit this criterion include Jesus's baptism by John,
'''[[The Q Document]]''' is a hypothetical document reconstructed from the synoptic gospels, with some scholars adding corollary readings from non-canonical "sayings Gospels" such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]]. It is based on the observation that Matthew and Luke each incorporate almost the whole of Mark, but add other material. As much of this added material is identical--consisting largely of sayings attributed to Jesus--many scholars speculate that Matthew and Luke copied not only Mark but another source, no longer extant, called Q (an abbreviation for the German ''Quelle'', meaning "wellspring" or "source"). If Q existed in a collected form, it could have been a written document or an oral tradition. Q has become an important topic in Jesus research, because the material thus identified might constitute an older and perhaps more reliable stratum.


===Birth===
'''Ancient non-Christian sources''' include scattered references to Jesus in the writings of [[Flavius Josephus]], Pliny the Younger, Tacitus, and [[Suetonius]]. Josephus was a Jewish historian who, in about AD 93, briefly described the careers of John the Baptist and Jesus. One passage, the so-called ''Testimonium Flavianum,'' is suspected to have suffered corruption by Christian editors. Around AD 100, Pliny the Younger wrote to the emperor Trajan for advice on what policy to adopt toward Christians in his jurisdiction, noting several basic details about the sect. The Roman historians Tacitus and Suetonius, writing in the early 2nd century, also mention Jesus briefly (if the latter's "Chrestus" in fact refers to the same man).
The gospels do not say when Jesus was born, when he died, or his age at death.  


'''Noncanonical Christian writings''' date from the 2nd century on, although elements of them may be based on earlier sources which are now unknown. This includes some literature not recognized by the emerging Christian orthodoxy, such as the Gospel of Thomas (see above), as well as the writings of the church fathers (which were recognized, but not as canon).


===Family===
'''The Talmuds,''' ancient compilations of Jewish law and tradition, include some 3rd-century recollections of 1st-century events. These may include scattered (and uncomplimentary) references to Jesus.


===Appearance===
==Jesus in the canonical Gospels==
{{Main|Canonical Gospels}}
Christians normally encounter the story of Jesus as a conflation of the canonical gospels, which many churches read from the pulpit according to a regular cycle. (Indeed, the synoptics may have been ''composed'' around such a calendar.) Many of the events listed here are associated with Christian holidays, such as Christmas (for Jesus' birth) or Easter (for his resurrection).


'''Jesus' geneaology.''' The first sentence of the New Testament (Matthew 1:1) calls Jesus "the son of David, the son of Abraham," thereby linking him to two key figures of the Old Testament. Abraham is the ancestor of the Jewish people. King David's reign marks a high point in the history of Israel, whose hoped-for revival was expressed through messianic expectations. Matthew (1:1-17) and Luke (3:23-38) give somewhat different lists of ancestors.


===Occupation===
'''The [[Nativity]].''' Both Matthew and Luke place Jesus' birth in Bethlehem (but have him grow up in Nazareth), and affirm the virginal conception. Matthew (chapters 1 and 2) adds the Star of Bethlehem, the Adoration of the Magi, the Flight into Egypt, and the Massacre of the Innocents. Luke (chapters 1 and 2) gives us the Annunciation, the Census of Quirinius, and the appearance of angels to shepherds in the field.


'''The [[Epiphany]].''' All four gospels introduce the adult Jesus by way of John the Baptist, who baptizes him.


===Teachings===
:"And when Jesus had been baptized he at once came up from the water, and suddenly the heavens opened and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and coming down on him. And suddenly there was a voice from heaven, 'This is my Son, the Beloved; my favor rests on him." (Matthew 3: 16-17; cf. Mark 1: 10 ff, Luke 3: 21 ff, John 1:32).


One key issue which defies consensus is that of Jesus's teachings. Scholars researching the historical Jesus have arrived at a variety of conclusions:
'''The Temptation.''' After Jesus' baptism, he fasts in the wilderness, where he is tempted (unsuccessfully) by the devil. (Matthew 4, Mark 1:12-13, Luke 4).


*[[David Friedrich Strauss]]
'''Calling of Disciples''' Jesus summons his first disciples (Matthew 4:18-22, Mark 1:16-20, Luke 5:1-11) and later--with a full complement of twelve--sends them out to preach (Matthew 10; Mark 6:7-13; Luke 6:12-16, also 9:1-6). Many scholars believe the twelve disciples thus appointed to represent the Twelve Tribes of Israel. (Jesus had many more followers than twelve.) The lists of names subtly differ from gospel to gospel.
*([[Ernest Renan]]
*[[Albert Schweizer]]
*[[
*
*
*


===Death===
'''Sermons.''' Matthew chapters 5 - 7 gives us the [[Sermon on the Mount]], in which Jesus calls on his followers to turn the other cheek (5:39), "love your enemies" (5:44), and practice the [[Golden Rule]] (7:12). Other highlights include the Beatitudes (5:3-11) and the Lord's Prayer (6:9-13). Similar material is found in Luke, but scattered throughout the text rather than concentrated, as in Matthew.


== Chronology ==
'''Parables.''' A "parable" is a short narrative illustrating a spiritual point--often puzzling, or involving a surprising twist--and the classic examples are those of Jesus. The synoptics agree that Jesus told "parables" (the concept is introduced somewhat in Matthew 13, Mark 4, and Luke 8) and give many examples. Here is just one:
{{JesusTimeline}}{{main|Chronology of Jesus}}
{{seealso | Census of Quirinius }}


The most detailed accounts of Jesus' birth are contained in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] (probably written between 65 and 90 AD/CE)<ref name="mat-date">[[Darrell L. Bock]], ''Jesus According to Scripture'', pp. 29-30, gives a ''c.'' 60-70 date; L. Michael White, ''From Jesus to Christianity'', p. 244, gives ''c.'' 80-90.</ref> and the [[Gospel of Luke]] (probably written between 65 and 100 AD/CE).<ref name="luke-date">Bock, ''ibid.'', p. 38, gives ''c.'' 62-70; White, ''ibid.'', p. 252, gives ''c.'' 90-100.</ref> There is considerable debate about the details of Jesus' birth among even Christian scholars, and few scholars claim to know precisely either the year or the date of his birth or of his death.
:"The kingdom of Heaven is like the yeast a woman took and mixed in with three measures of flour till it was leavened all through." (Matthew 13:33).


The nativity accounts in Matthew and Luke do not mention a date or time of year for the birth of Jesus. 
'''Miracle stories.''' All four gospels affirm that Jesus performed miracles. A traditional typology would distinguish between
In Western Christianity, it has been traditionally celebrated in the [[Liturgical year|liturgical]] season of [[Christmas season|Christmastide]] as [[Christmas]] on 25 December, a date that can be traced as early as [[330]] among Roman Christians.  Before then, and still today in [[Eastern Christianity]], Jesus' birth was generally celebrated on [[January 6]] as part of the feast of [[Theophany]],<ref name=fahlbusch> Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, The Encyclopedia of Christianity [Grand Rapids, Mich.; Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003], 1:454–55</ref> also known as [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], which commemorated not only Jesus' birth but also his [[baptism]] by [[John the Baptist|John]] in the [[Jordan River]] and possibly additional events in Jesus' life.  Many scholars note that the account in Luke of the shepherds' activities suggest a spring or summer date for Jesus' birth.<ref name=shepherds> Porterm J. R. ''Jesus Christ: The Jesus of History, the Christ of Faith.'' Oxford University Press, 1999. Pg. 70 ISBN 0-19-521429-3</ref> Scholars speculate that the date of the celebration was moved in an attempt to replace the Roman festival of [[Saturnalia]] (or more specifically, the birthday of the God [[Sol Invictus]]).<ref name= fahlbusch />


In the 248th year during the [[Diocletian]] [[Calendar era|Era]] (based on Diocletian's ascension to the Roman throne), [[Dionysius Exiguus]] attempted to pinpoint the number of years since Jesus' birth, arriving at a figure of 753 years after the [[founding of Rome]]. Dionysius then set Jesus' birth as being [[December 25]] [[1 BC|1 ACN]] (for "Ante Christum Natum", or "before the birth of Christ"), and assigned AD 1 to the following year — thereby establishing the system of numbering years from the birth of Jesus: ''[[Anno Domini]]'' (which translates as "in the year of our [[Lord]]"). This system made the then current year 532, and almost two centuries later it won acceptance and became the established calendar in Western civilization due to its further championing by the [[Bede|Venerable Bede]].
:*healings (e.g. of the "man born blind" in John 9);
:*exorcisms (e.g., of the Gerasene demoniac in Matthew 8:28-34, Mark 5:1-20, and Luke 8:26-39);
:*"nature miracles" (e.g. walking on water in Matthew 14:22-33, Mark 6: 45-52, and John 6:16-21); and  
:*resurrections (e.g. of Lazarus in John 11).


However, based on a [[lunar eclipse]] that [[Josephus]] reports shortly before the death of [[Herod the Great]] (who plays a major role in Matthew's account), as well as a more accurate understanding of the succession of Roman Emperors, Jesus' birth would have been some time during or before the year 4 BC/BCE. Having fewer sources and being further removed in time from the authors of the [[New Testament]], establishing a reliable birth date now is particularly difficult.
'''The [[Transfiguration]].''' The synoptics (Matthew 17:1-6, Mark 9:1-8, Luke 9:28-36) say that, when Jesus took his disciples Peter, John, and James the son of Zebadee to the top of a mountain, Jesus began to shine with light. His disciples also saw him converse with [[Moses]] and [[Elijah]], and heard a voice from the clouds.


The exact date of Jesus' death is also unclear. Many scholars hold that the [[Gospel of John]] depicts the crucifixion just before the [[Passover]] festival on Friday 14 [[Nisan]], called the [[Quartodecimanism|Quartodeciman]], whereas the [[synoptic gospels]] (except for {{niv|Mark|14:2|Mark 14:2}}) describe the [[Last Supper]], immediately before Jesus' arrest, as the Passover meal on Friday 15 Nisan; however, a number of scholars hold that the synoptic account is harmonious with the account in John.<ref name="alternate-supper">See [[Leon Morris]], ''The Gospel According to John, Revised'', pp. 284-295, for a discussion of several alternate theories with references.</ref> Further, the Jews followed a [[lunisolar calendar]] with phases of the moon as dates, complicating calculations of any exact date in a solar calendar. According to [[John P. Meier]]'s ''A Marginal Jew'', allowing for the time of the [[procurator|procuratorship]] of [[Pontius Pilate]] and the dates of the Passover in those years, his death can be placed most probably on [[April 7]], [[30]] AD/CE or [[April 3]], [[33]] AD/CE.<ref>Meier, p.1:402</ref>
'''Apocalypse.''' The synoptics (Matthew 24, 25; Mark 13, Luke 12) describe Jesus as expecting a time of "sorrows" which will culminate in the Last Judgement. Many false Christs will appear, and the "abomination of desolation" will be set up in Jerusalem. Many scholars connect these passages with the siege of Jerusalem and the destruction of its temple AD 70. Jesus refers to "the Son of Man" (possibly meaning himself); this is an allusion to the seventh chapter of Daniel, the classic text of Jewish apocalypticism.


== Life and teachings according to the Gospels ==
'''Jesus' revelation as the Messiah.''' The synoptics (Matthew 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 9:18-21) have Jesus ask his disciples about their understanding of his role. When Peter calls him the Messiah, Jesus orders the disciples not to tell anyone. Matthew has John the Baptist send messengers to ask Jesus whether he is the Messiah--he tells them to inform John that "the blind see again, and the lame walk" (Matthew 11:5). John has Jesus reveal himself as the Messiah in many situations, notably to a Samaritan woman whom he meets at a well (John 4).
{{main|New Testament view on Jesus' life}}
{{Gospel Jesus}}


As few of the details of Jesus' life can be independently verified, it is difficult to gauge the historical accuracy of the [[Bible|Biblical]] accounts. The four [[biblical canon|canonical]] [[gospel]]s are the main sources of information for the traditional Christian narrative of Jesus' life.  
'''Disputes with Pharisees and Sadducees.''' The synoptics (Matthew 16:1-12, 21:23 ff, 22, 23; Mark 8:11-21, 11:27-end, 12; Luke 11: 37-53) portray Jesus as angrily debating representatives of two of the major religious factions, the Pharisees and Sadducees (or "scribes"). A major theme is the degree of severity required by Jewish law--Jesus accuses his opponents of over-exactitude and hypocrisy. Their conflict will play a great role in Jesus' later execution. John (8:1-11) gives the story of the "woman caught in adultery," in which the Pharisees and Sadduccees ask Jesus for his legal opinion (the biblically-mandated sentence being death by stoning). His celebrated words: "Let he who is without sin cast the first stone."


=== Genealogy and family ===
'''Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem.''' All four gospels (Matthew 21, Mark 11, Luke 19:28 ff, John 12:12 ff) agree that Jesus was welcomed into Jerusalem by crowds shouting messianic slogans--an event commemorated as Palm Sunday.
{{main|Genealogy of Jesus|Desposyni}}


Of the four gospels, only Matthew and Luke give accounts of Jesus' genealogy.  Matthew's account gives the male line through his legal father [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]]; Luke either gives the male line or, according to another interpretation, the line though Jesus' mother, [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]].<ref>{{niv|Matthew|1:2-16|Matt 1:2–16}}; {{niv|Luke|3:23-38|Luke 3:23–38}}</ref>
'''The Last Supper / Betrayal by Judas.''' All four gospels (Matthew 26, Mark 14, Luke 22, John 13 and 18) have Judas leave the company in order to betray Jesus to the temple authorities. The synoptics describe the Last Supper (a Passover seder), in which Jesus shares bread and wine with his disciples, saying the words that are repeated with every celebration of the eucharist: "This is my body which is given for you; do this in remembrance of me. This cup is the new covenant in my blood poured out for you." (Luke 22:19-20, cf. I Corinthians 11:23 ff).
Both accounts trace his line back to [[David|King David]] and from there to [[Abraham]]. These lists are identical between Abraham and David, but they differ between David and Joseph. Matthew starts with [[Solomon]] and proceeds through the kings of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] to the last king, [[Jeconiah]]. After Jeconiah, the line of kings terminated when [[Babylonian captivity|Babylon conquered Judah]]. Thus, Matthew shows that Jesus is the legal heir to the throne of Israel. Luke's genealogy is longer than Matthew's; it goes back to [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] and provides more names between David and Jesus.


Joseph appears only in descriptions of Jesus' childhood. With Jesus commending [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] into the care of the [[beloved disciple]] during his crucifixion ({{niv|John|19:25-27|John 19:25–27}}), it is likely that he had died by the time of Jesus' ministry.<ref name=WebBible> Easton, Matthew Gallego.[http://www.christiananswers.net/dictionary/joseph-fosterfatherofjesus.html Joseph (the foster father of Jesus Christ)]. Accessed June 26, 2006</ref> The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians tell of Jesus' relatives, including possible brothers and sisters.<ref>{{niv|Matthew|13:55-56|Matthew 13:55–56}}, {{niv|Mark|6:3|Mark 6:3}}, and {{niv|Galatians|1:19|Galatians 1:19}}</ref> The Greek word ''adelphos'' in these verses is often translated as ''brother'' in many Bible translations. However, the word can refer to any familial relation, and most Catholics and certain other Christians translate the word as ''kinsman'' or ''cousin''.
'''The Farewell Discourses.''' Instead of the Last Supper, John (chapters 13-17) describes a final intimate talk which is considered a highlight of Christian mystical expression. After washing the disciples' feet as an example of service and humility, Jesus gives them "a new commandment"--to "love one another, as I have loved you." (15:12, cf. 13:34). Later sections describe Jesus' relationship with "the Father", and promise the coming of the Paraclete (Holy Spirit).


=== Nativity and childhood ===
'''Arrest''' According to the synoptics, Jesus spends the night before his death on the Mount of Olives (outside Jerusalem), in prayer (Matthew 26:36 ff, Mark 14:32 ff, Luke 22:39 ff). All four gospels describe Judas as leading temple police to Jesus, who he identifies by kissing him (Matthew 26:47 ff, Mark 14:43 ff, Luke 22:47 ff, John 18).
{{main|Annunciation|Nativity of Jesus|Child Jesus}}


[[Image:Gerard van Honthorst 002.jpg|thumb|left|''Adoration of the Shepherds'', [[Gerard van Honthorst]] , 17th c.]]
'''Trial''' The gospels describe three distinct trials, all during the same night. The first, before a council of Jewish religious authorities (the Sanhedrin), examines whether Jesus has claimed to be the Messiah and/or the "Son of God." The second, before Pilate, focuses on the issue of whether he claimed to be the "King of the Jews." To all such questions Jesus responds in the affirmative, though John (18:36) has him explain to Pilate that "my kingdom is not of this world." Luke adds a third trial before Herod Antipas, to whom Pilate has sent Jesus to be tried for jurisdictional reasons. (Herod sends him back.) In the end, Pilate--his hand apparently forced by the Jewish community--reluctantly finds Jesus guilty and sentences him to death.


According to Matthew and Luke, Jesus was born in [[Bethlehem]] of Judea to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]], a [[virgin]], by a [[miracle]] of the [[Holy Spirit]]. The [[Gospel of Luke]] gives an account of the [[angel]] [[Gabriel]] visiting Mary to tell her that she was chosen to bear the [[Son of God]] ({{niv|Luke|1:26-38|Luke 1:26–38}}). According to Luke, an order of [[Augustus|Caesar Augustus]] forced Mary and Joseph to leave their homes in [[Nazareth]] and come to the home of Joseph's ancestors, the house of [[David]], for the [[Census of Quirinius]]. After Jesus' birth, the couple was forced to use a [[manger]] in place of a crib because there was no room for them in the town's [[inn]] ({{niv|Luke|2:1-7|Luke 2:1–7}}). According to Luke, an [[angel]] announced Jesus' birth to shepherds who came to see the newborn child and subsequently publicized what they had witnessed throughout the area (see [[The First Noël]]). Matthew also tells of the "[[Three Wise Men|Wise Men]]" or "[[Magus|Magi]]" who brought gifts to the infant Jesus after following a star which they believed was a sign that the [[Messiah]], or [[King of the Jews]], had been born ({{niv|Matthew|2:1-12|Matthew 2:1-12}}), and of the [[Flight into Egypt|flight to Egypt]] after Jesus' birth in order to escape Herod's [[Massacre of the Innocents]].
'''The Passion.''' All four gospels agree that Jesus was executed by crucifixion, and recount various "Stations of the Cross" that represent successive stages of his agony. The words spoken by Jesus from the cross differ from gospel to gospel. The synoptics agree that Jesus' death was on a Friday which was also the Passover; John says that the day was actually the Day of Preparation (the day before).  


Jesus' childhood home is stated in the Bible to have been the town of [[Nazareth]] in [[Galilee]]. According to Luke, Joseph and Mary lived in Nazareth before Jesus' birth and returned there afterwards.  According to Matthew, the family remained in Egypt until Herod's death, whereupon they moved to Nazareth in order to avoid living under the authority of Herod's son and successor [[Herod Archelaus|Archelaus]] ({{niv|Matthew|2:19-23|Matthew 2:19-23}}).
'''Resurrection''' In all four gospels (Matthew 28, Mark 16 Luke 4, John 20), Mary Magdalene and other female followers of Jesus visit his tomb, and discover that he is in fact alive. (A shorter ending of Mark ends with the discovery of the empty tomb.) Jesus appears to the other disciples later and gives them the "Great Commission" (to take his message to the world). The Gospel of John adds touching farewells to disciples Thomas and Peter.


Aside from the [[Flight into Egypt|flight to Egypt]] and a short trip to [[Tyre]] and [[Sidon]], all other events in the Gospels are set in [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Israel]].<ref>''For Egypt'': {{niv|Matthew|2:13-23|Matt 2:13–23}}; ''For Tyre and sometimes Sidon'':{{niv|Matthew|15:21-28|Matt 15:21–28}} and {{niv|Mark|7:24-30|Mark 7:24–30}}</ref>  Luke's [[Finding in the Temple]] ({{niv|Luke|2:41-52|Luke 2:41–52}}) is the only event between Jesus' infancy and adult life mentioned in any of the canonical Gospels, although the [[New Testament apocrypha]] filled in the details of this time, some quite extensively.
'''Ascension.''' Luke (24:50, cf. Mark 16:19) reports that the disciples watched Jesus ascend into heaven. The Book of Acts (1:19-11) adds that Jesus, in the words of an angel, "will come back in the same way as you have seen him go to heaven." This alludes to the Christian belief in the Second Coming of Christ.


=== Baptism and temptation ===
==The historical Jesus==
{{main|Baptism of Jesus|Temptation of Jesus}}
{{Main|Historical Jesus}}
Since the [[Enlightenment]], scholars have tried to distinguish Jesus as a historical figure from the figure worshiped by Christianity, although [[Albert Schweitzer]] commented that scholars who set out on a "Quest for the Historical Jesus" tend to discover in him a reflection of their own views. Some [[naturalism|naturalist]] scholars focused doubt on the biblical accounts of miracles. Others saw Jesus as a moral teacher whose views are best represented by the Sermon on the Mount. In recent decades, the name "Jesus Studies" has come to describe historical (as opposed to theological) approaches to the study of Jesus. In 1985, the [[Westar Institute]] started a project named the Jesus Seminar which inquired into the "voice of Jesus" - two hundred scholars discussed and voted on which stories and statements about Jesus they thought were historically valid. Many of the scholars involved with the Seminar have gone on to develop theories about Jesus, some of which are described below.


[[Image:Ary Scheffer - The Temptation of Christ (1854).jpg|thumb|right|175px|''Temptation of Christ'', [[Ary Scheffer]], 19th c.]]
A central problem is that the most important sources about Jesus--the canonical gospels--are not accepted as reliable by all scholars due to a number of factors: (1) disagreement in regards to date of authorship, (2) the writers' neutrality is disputed because they were followers of Jesus, and (3) certain details in the gospels are believed to conflict with one another, with external history, or with secular understandings and presuppositions regarding the physical world. As a result, historians must decide whether to
The [[Gospel of Mark]] begins with the [[Baptism of Jesus]] by [[John the Baptist]], which Biblical scholars describe as the beginning of Jesus' public ministry. According to Mark, Jesus came to the [[Jordan River]] where John the Baptist had been preaching and baptizing people in the crowd. [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] adds to the account by describing an attempt by John to decline Jesus' request for baptism, saying that it is Jesus who should baptize John. Jesus insisted however, claiming that baptism was necessary to "fulfill all righteousness." ({{niv|Matthew|3:15|Matthew 3:15}}). After Jesus had been baptized and rose from the water, Mark states Jesus "saw the heavens parting and the Spirit descending upon Him like a dove. Then a voice came from heaven saying: ‘You are My beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased.’" ({{nkjv|Mark|1:10-11|Mark 1:10–11}}).


Following his baptism, according to Matthew, Jesus was led into the desert by God where he [[fasting|fasted]] for forty days and forty nights. During this time, the [[Devil in Christianity|devil]] appeared to him and tempted Jesus to demonstrate his [[supernatural]] powers as proof of being the [[Son of God]], although each temptation was refused by Jesus with a quote of [[scripture]] from the [[Book of Deuteronomy]]. In all, he was tempted three times. The Gospels state that having failed, the devil departed and [[angel]]s came and brought nourishment to Jesus ({{niv|Matthew|4:1-11|Matthew 4:1-11}}).
:(a) select which information they regard as most probable;
:(b) attempt to harmonize seeming discrepancies; or
:(c) doubt everything.


=== Ministry ===
Following this last principle, a few scholars ([[G. A. Wells]], [[Earl Doherty]], [[John Allegro]] and [[Robert M. Price]]) go so far as to doubt the existence of Jesus as a historical figure, often citing the idea of the ''Mythic Hero'' and pointing to similarities with the myths of earlier religious saviors<ref>As an example of this genre, [[Robert M. Price]]'s essay [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/robert_price/fiction.html Christ a Fiction] (1997) ''Internet Infidels'' library.</ref>. This view has not received widespread support for several reasons, including attestation to Jesus' existence in disparate sources, and the inclusion in the gospel accounts of events potentially embarrassing to early Christians that were unlikely to have been invented. Examples of such embarrassing events include Jesus' execution as a criminal (a detail not found in traditional Jewish messianic lore), and his baptism by John the Baptist (suggesting that Jesus had sins to be forgiven, and an inferior role to John).
{{main|Ministry of Jesus|Sermon on the Mount|Sermon on the Plain|Twelve Apostles|Transfiguration of Jesus}}
[[Image:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|left|thumb|250px|''Sermon on the Mount'', [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]], 19th c.]]


The Gospels state that Jesus, as [[Messiah]], was sent to "give his life as a ransom for many" and "preach the good news of the [[Kingdom of God]]."<ref>{{bibleverse||Mark|10:45}}, {{bibleverse||Luke|4:43}}, {{bibleverse||John|20:31}}.</ref> Over the course of his ministry, Jesus performed various [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], including healings, [[exorcism]]s, [[walking on water]], [[turning water into wine]], and raising several people, such as [[Lazarus]], from the dead ({{niv|John|11:1–44|John 11:1–44}}).
Recent scholarly interpretations of Jesus that do not necessarily agree with historical Christian beliefs variously portray him as:  


[[Image:First century palestine.gif|thumb|225px|right|Judaea and Galilee at the time of Jesus]]The Gospel of John describes three different [[passover]] feasts over the course of Jesus' ministry. This implies that Jesus preached for a period of three years, although some interpretations of the [[Synoptic Gospels]] suggest a span of only one year. The focus of his ministry was toward his closest adherents, the [[Twelve Apostles]], though many of his followers were considered [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]]. Jesus led what many believe to have been an [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] following. He preached that the [[End times|end of the current world]] would come unexpectedly; as such, he called on his followers to be ever alert and faithful.
* a Cynic sage ([[Robert Funk]], [[Marcus Borg]], [[John Dominic Crossan]])
* a Pharisee ([[Jacob Neusner]], [[Hyam Macoby]])
* a social reformer ([[Marcus Borg]], [[John Dominic Crossan]], [[N.T. Wright]])
* a zealot or revolutionary ([[Hermann Samuel Reimarus]])
* an apocalytic prophet ([[Albert Schweitzer]], [[Bart Ehrman]], [[Paula Fredriksen]], [[John Meier]], [[E.P. Sanders]])
* a folk magician ([[Morton Smith]], [[John Dominic Crossan]])
* a messianic claimant ([[Raymond Brown]], [[Luke Timothy Johnson]], [[N.T. Wright]])
* a "Child of Sophia" ([[Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza]], [[Marcus Borg]], [[John Shelby Spong]])


At the height of his ministry, Jesus attracted huge crowds numbering in the thousands, primarily in the areas of [[Galilee]] and Perea (in modern-day [[Israel]] and [[Jordan]] respectively). Some of Jesus' most famous teachings come from the [[Sermon on the Mount]], which contained the [[Beatitudes]] and the [[Lord's Prayer]]. Jesus often employed [[Parables of Jesus|parables]], such as the [[Prodigal Son]], and the [[Parable of the Sower]]. His teachings centered around unconditional self-sacrificing God-like [[agape|love]] for God and for all people. During his sermons, he preached about service and humility, the forgiveness of sin, faith, [[Turn the other cheek|turning the other cheek]], [[Expounding of the Law#Love|love for one's enemies]] as well as friends, and the need to follow the spirit of [[Torah|the law]] in addition to the letter.<ref>''Sermon on the Mount'': {{niv|Matthew|5-7|Matt 5–7}}; ''Prodigal Son'': {{niv|Luke|15:11-32|Luke 15:11–32}}; ''Parable of the Sower'': {{niv|Matthew|13:1-9|Matt 13:1–9}}; ''Agape'': {{niv|Matthew|22:34-40|Matt 22:34–40}}.</ref>
Many other theories have been proposed, but have received less scholarly support.


Jesus often met with society's outcasts, such as the [[publicani]] (Imperial tax collectors who were despised for extorting money), including the apostle [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]]; when the [[Pharisees]] objected to meeting with sinners rather than the righteous, Jesus replied that it was the sick who need a physician, not the healthy ({{niv|Matthew|9:9-13|Matthew 9:9–13}}). According to Luke and John, Jesus also made efforts to extend his ministry to the [[Samaritans]], who followed [[Samaritanism|a different form]] of the Israelite religion. This is reflected in his preaching to the Samaritans of [[Sychar]], resulting in their conversion ({{niv|John|4:1-42|John 4:1–42}}).
==Jesus in Christianity==
{{Main|Jesus in Christianity}}
Christianity encompasses groups and individuals whose Christologies (views on Jesus) are extremely diverse. Nevertheless, certain "mainstream" beliefs can be identified, which would win broad support among the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches (i.e. the overwhelming majority of Christians). These beliefs may be traced partly to the New Testament, and partly to church tradition. Especially influential were the ecumenical councils which established creeds such as the Nicene (or Niceno-Constantinopolitan) Creed.  


=== Arrest, trial, and death ===
Christians generally affirm that Jesus was the Messiah whose coming was predicted by the prophets of the Old Testament; and would approve of Peter's words (in Matthew 16:16), "You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God." Perhaps confusingly, Christian tradition hails Jesus not only as the Son of God, but also in some sense as God himself, incarnated as a man. The theology that arose to describe this uses the language of the Incarnation (Jesus being fully human, yet fully divine), and of the Trinity (Jesus being its Second Person, the Son or Logos, who is "eternally begotten of the Father").
{{main|Jesus and the Money Changers|The Last Supper|Arrest of Jesus|Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus|Passion (Christianity)}}


[[Image:Eccehomo2.jpg|thumb|right|175px|''Ecce Homo'' ''(Behold, the Man!)'', [[Antonio Ciseri]], 19th c.: Pontius Pilate presents a [[scourge]]d Jesus of Nazareth to onlookers]]
The Jesus of Christianity is at once historical and trans-historical. The Nicene Creed expresses the belief that he existed before the creation of the world, and will reign eternally after its end (the subject of eschatology). Moreover, many affirm his dwelling within the hearts of all Christian believers, perhaps all souls, who receive spiritual life from him as grapes do from the vine (John 15:1 ff). The "body of Christ" is identified with the community of believers--the church--as well as with the communion bread. For some churches such as Orthodox and Catholics, Christ is actually present in the Eucharist (Transubstantiation), whereby he unites with his worshipers.


According to the Gospels, Jesus came with his followers to Jerusalem during the Passover festival where a large crowd came to meet him, shouting, "[[Hosanna]]! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord! Blessed is the King of Israel!"<ref>The crowd was quoting {{niv|Psalms|118:26|Psalms 118:26}}; found in {{niv|John|12:13-16|John 12:13–16}}.</ref> Following his [[triumphal entry]], according to the synoptic gospels, Jesus created a disturbance at [[Herod's Temple]] by [[Jesus and the Money Changers|overturning the tables of the moneychangers]] operating there, claiming that they had made the Temple a "den of robbers." ({{niv|John|2:13-17|John 2:13–17}}).  Later that week, according to the synoptic gospels, Jesus and his disciples gathered for what is known as the [[Last Supper]], in which he prophesied his future betrayal by one of his apostles and ultimate execution. Following the supper, Jesus and his disciples went to pray in the [[Garden of Gethsemane]].
Of the various miracles that the gospels attribute to Jesus, or describe as occurring in his proximity, most amount to signs of his divinity. However, two carry special doctrinal significance: Mary's virginal conception of Jesus (not to be confused with the immaculate conception, or the virgin birth), and Jesus' resurrection from the dead. The first is associated with the Incarnation; the second, with Christ's role as Savior.


While in the garden, Jesus was [[Arrest of Jesus|arrested]] by [[Roman Empire|Roman]] soldiers on the orders of the [[Sanhedrin]] and the high priest, [[Caiaphas]]. <ref>Cited later in {{niv|Matthew|26:65-67|Matt 26:65–67}}.</ref> The arrest took place clandestinely at night to avoid a riot, as Jesus was popular with the people at large ({{niv|Mark|14:2|Mark 14:2}}). According to the synoptics, [[Judas Iscariot]], one of his apostles, betrayed Jesus by identifying him to the guards with a kiss. Another apostle used a sword to attack one of the captors, cutting off his ear, which, according to Luke, Jesus immediately healed.<ref>The apostle is identified as [[Saint Peter|Simon Peter]] in {{niv|john|18:10|John 18:10}}; the healing of the ear is found in {{niv|luke|22:51|Luke 22:51}}.</ref> Jesus rebuked the apostle, stating "all they that take the sword shall perish by the sword" ({{niv|Matthew|26:52|Matthew 26:52}}). After his arrest, Jesus' apostles went into hiding.
For Christians, Jesus' crucifixion was the defining moment in the history of the world, a kind of "axis mundi". It is remembered not as a tragedy, but as a triumph--and not simply because Jesus escaped as a result of his resurrection and subsequent ascension. Various Christian theologies attempt to explain how Christ's sacrifice has brought salvation into the world; this is the field of soteriology.  


[[Image:Cristo Velázquez lou2.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[Crucifixion]]'', [[Diego Velázquez]], 17th c.]]During the [[Sanhedrin Trial of Jesus]], the high priests and elders asked Jesus, "Are you the [[Son of God]]?", and upon his reply of "You say that I am", condemned Jesus for [[blasphemy]] ({{niv|luke|22:70-71|Luke 22:70–71}}). The high priests then turned him over to the Roman Prefect [[Pontius Pilate]], based on an accusation of [[sedition]] for claiming to be King of the Jews. <ref>{{niv|Matthew|27:11|Matt 27:11}}; {{niv|Mark|15:2|Mark 15:12}}.</ref> While before Pilate, Jesus was questioned "Are you the king of the Jews?" to which he replied, "It is as you say." According to the Gospels, Pilate personally felt that Jesus was not guilty of any crime against the Romans, and since there was a custom at Passover for the Roman governor to free a prisoner (a custom not recorded outside the Gospels), Pilate offered the crowd a choice between Jesus of Nazareth and an insurrectionist named [[Barabbas]]. The crowd chose to have Barabbas freed and Jesus crucified. Pilate washed his hands to display that he himself was innocent of the injustice of the decision ({{niv|Matthew|27:11-26|Matthew 27:11–26}}).
:*Several theories emphasize the legal helplessness of sinful humanity before God as unwavering judge (the "appeasement" or "commercial" theory), or Satan as debtor (the "ransom" theory), with sinless Christ as the only acceptable payment.  


According to all four Gospels, Jesus died before late afternoon. The wealthy Judean [[Joseph of Arimathea]], according to Mark and Luke a member of the [[Sanhedrin]], received Pilate's permission to take possession of Jesus' body, placing it in a tomb.<ref>{{niv|Mark|15:42-46|Mark 15:42–46}}; {{niv|Luke|23:50-56|Luke 23:50–56}}.</ref> According to John, Joseph was joined in burying Jesus by [[Nicodemus]], who appears in other parts of John's gospel ({{niv|John|19:38-42|John 19:38–42}}).  The three Synoptic Gospels tell of an earthquake and of the darkening of the sky from twelve until three that afternoon.
:*The ''Christus Victor'' theory conceives of Christ's life and death as revelations of God's love, whereby Christ descended to earth for us and (in the words of the liturgy of Saint Basil) "conquered death by death, and became the firstborn of the dead."


=== Resurrection and Ascension ===
:*Another (Pauline) image is that of Christ as the "last Adam," whose sinless perfection atones (justifying man and making him righteous in the sight of God) for Adam's sin: "For as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ" (I Corinthians 15:22, cf. Romans 5:12 ff.) Orthodox and Catholic tradition similarly juxtaposes Eve with the Virgin Mary (though the station of Mary is by no means comparable to that of Christ).
[[Image:Grunewald - christ.jpg|thumb|right|175px|''Christ en majesté'', [[Matthias Grünewald]], 16th c.: [[Resurrection of Jesus]]]]
{{main|Harrowing of Hell|Resurrection of Jesus|Great Commission|Ascension|Second Coming}}


According to the Gospels, Jesus was [[resurrection of Jesus|raised from the dead]] on the third day after his [[crucifixion]].<ref name="Resurrection">{{sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=Matthew |chapter=28|verse=5|range=-10}}; {{niv|mark|16:9|Mark 16:9}}; {{niv|luke|24:12-16|Luke 24:12–16}}; {{niv|John|20:10-17|John 20:10–17}}; {{niv|Acts|2:24|Acts 2:24}}; {{niv|1Cor|6:14|1Cor 6:14}}</ref> The Gospel of Matthew states that an angel appeared near the tomb of Jesus and announced his resurrection to the women who had arrived to [[anoint]] the body. According to Luke it was two angels, and according to Mark it was a youth dressed in white. Mark states that on the morning of his resurrection, Jesus first appeared to [[Mary Magdalene]] ({{niv|Mark|16:9|Mark 16:9}}). John states that when Mary looked into the tomb, two angels asked her why she was crying; and as she turned round she initially failed to recognize Jesus until he spoke her name ({{niv|john|20:11-18|John 20:11-18}}).
==Jesus in Islam==
{{Main|Jesus in Islam}}
The Qur'an repeatedly names Jesus (Arabic ''Isa'') as one of the prophets of Islam. (The terms ''nabi'' and ''rasul'' are both used.) A hadith (tradition) of Burkhari (4.55.651) adds that he was the last prophet to appear before Muhammad.  


The [[Acts of the Apostles]] state that Jesus appeared to various people in various places over the next forty days. Hours after his resurrection, he appeared to two travellers on the road to [[Emmaus]]. To his assembled disciples he showed himself on the evening after his resurrection. Although his own ministry had been specifically to Jews, Jesus is said to have sent his apostles to the Gentiles with the [[Great Commission]] and [[Ascension|ascended]] to heaven while a cloud concealed him from their sight. According to Acts, [[Paul of Tarsus]] also saw Jesus during his [[Road to Damascus]] experience. Jesus promises to [[Second Coming|come again]] to fulfill the remainder of [[Messianic prophecy]].<ref>''Ministering to Israel'': {{niv|Matthew|15:24|Matthew 15:24}}; ''ascension'': {{niv|Mark|16:19|Mark 16:19}}; {{niv|Luke|24:51|Luke 24:51}}{{niv|Acts|1:6-11|Acts 1:6–11.}}; ''Paul's conversion on the road to Damascus'': {{niv|Acts|9:1-19|Acts 9:1–19.}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|22:1-22|31}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|26:9-24|31}}; ''Second coming'': {{niv|Matthew|24:36-44|Matthew 24:36–44}}</ref>
Christian beliefs affirmed by the Qur'an include


== Historicity ==
:*the virginal conception by Mary (3:47, 21:91)
Scholars arguing in favor of the existence of Jesus as a historical figure present probable reconstructions of his life by using the [[historical method]]. This is to be distinguished from the [[New Testament view on Jesus' life|Biblical Jesus]], which derives from a [[theology|theological]] reading of the Gospel texts. Some scholars dispute the [[historicity of Jesus]].<ref>[[Bruno Bauer]], [[Michael Martin]], John Mackinnon Robertson, G.A. Wells. The Jesus Legend, Chicago: Open Court, 1996, p xii.</ref>
:*Jesus' miracles, such as healing the blind or leprous, or bringing a clay bird to life (3:49, cf. the ''Protevangelion Jacobi'' for this last)
:*his mixed reception, with some disbelieving (2:253)
:*his status as the Messiah (''as-Masih''), who "confirmed the Torah that had come before him" (61:6), and predicted the future appearance of "Ahmad" (i.e. Muhammad, 61:6)
:*the title "Word of God" (''Kamilat Allah'', 3:45)
:*his Second Coming--"there is none of the People of the Book but must believe in him before his death; and on the Day of Judgment he will be a witness against them..." (4:159).  In that connection, a number of hadith describe a final contest between Jesus (perhaps accompanied by the Mahdi) and ''Dajjal,'' the Antichrist.  


=== Historical and archeological reconstructions of Jesus' day to day life ===
Christian beliefs rejected by the Qur'an include:
{{main|Historical Jesus|Cultural and historical background of Jesus}}


Most scholars agree the Gospels were written shortly before or after the destruction of [[Herod's Temple|the Jewish Temple]] in the year 70 by the Romans. Examining the New Testament account of Jesus in light of historical knowledge about the time when Jesus was purported to live, as well as historical knowledge about the time during which the New Testament was written, has led several scholars to reinterpret many elements of the New Testament accounts. Many have sought to reconstruct Jesus' life in terms of contemporaneous political, cultural, and religious currents in Israel, including differences between Galilee and Judea; between different sects such the [[Pharisees]], [[Sadducees]], [[Essenes]] and [[Zealots]];<ref name=Brandon>For a comparison of the Jesus movement to the Zealots, see S.G.F Brandon, ''Jesus and the Zealots: a study of the political factor in primitive Christianity,'' Manchester University Press (1967) ISBN 0-684-31010-4</ref> and in terms of conflicts among Jews in the context of Roman occupation.
:*the Incarnation: "They do blaspheme who say "Allah is Christ the son of Mary..." (5:72). "Christ the son of Mary was no more than a messenger; many were the messengers that passed away before him." (5:75)


The Gospels record that Jesus was a [[Nazarene]], but the meaning of this word is vague.<ref name=marginal> For a general comparison of Jesus' teachings to other schools of first century Judaism, see [[John P. Meier]], ''Companions and Competitors (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Volume 3)'' Anchor Bible, 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4.</ref> Some scholars assert that Jesus was himself a Pharisee.<ref name=JesusPharisee>Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the Talmud and other Jewish literature. [[E. P. Sanders|Sanders, E. P.]] ''Jesus and Judaism,'' Fortress Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8006-2061-5; [[Hyam Maccoby|Maccoby, Hyam]] ''Jesus the Pharisee,'' Scm Press, 2003. ISBN 0-334-02914-7; [[Harvey Falk|Falk, Harvey]] ''Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus,'' Wipf & Stock Publishers (2003). ISBN 1-59244-313-3.</ref> In Jesus' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the [[Hillel the Elder|House of Hillel]] and the [[House of Shammai]]. Jesus' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their teachings on divorce ({{niv|Mark|10:1-12|Mark 10:1–12}}).<ref name=Neusner>[[Jacob Neusner|Neusner, Jacob]] ''A Rabbi Talks With Jesus,'' McGill-Queen's University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-7735-2046-5. Rabbi Neusner contends that Jesus' teachings were closer to the House of Shammai than the House of Hillel.</ref> Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel's teachings (Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 31a) concerning the [[Shema Yisrael|greatest commandment]] ({{niv|Mark|12:28-34|Mark 12:28–34}}) and the [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]] ({{niv|Matthew|7:12|Matt 7:12}}).
:*the Trinity: "They do blaspheme who say: God is one of three in a Trinity: for there is no god except One Allah." (5:73) However, 5:116 suggests that the "Trinity" being condemned here is one consisting of God, Jesus and Mary.


Other scholars assert that Jesus was an Essene, a sect of Judaism not mentioned in the [[New Testament]].<ref name=JesusEssene>Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], especially the [[Teacher of Righteousness]] and Pierced Messiah. [[Robert Eisenman|Eisenman, Robert]] ''James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls,'' Penguin (Non-Classics), 1998. ISBN 0-14-025773-X; [[Hartmut Stegemann|Stegemann, Hartmut]] ''The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus.'' Grand Rapids MI, 1998. See also Broshi, Magen, "What Jesus Learned from the Essenes," ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]],'' 30:1, pg. 32-37, 64. Magen notes similarities between Jesus' teachings on the virtue of poverty and divorce, and Essene teachings as related in Josephus' ''[[The Jewish Wars]]'' and in the [[Damascus Document]] of the Dead Sea Scrolls, repspectively.</ref> Still other scholars assert that Jesus led a new [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]] sect, possibly related to [[John the Baptist]],<ref name=JesusApoc1>The Gospel accounts show both John the Baptist and Jesus teaching repentance and the coming Kingdom of God. Some scholars have argued that Jesus was a failed apocalyptic prophet; see [[Albert Schweitzer|Schwietzer, Albert]] ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede,'' pgs. 370–371, 402. Scribner (1968), ISBN 0-02-089240-3; [[Bart Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]] ''Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium,'' Oxford University Press USA, 1999. ISBN 0-19-512474-X. Crossan, however, makes a distinction between John's apocalyptic ministry and Jesus' ethical ministry. See [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]], ''The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus,'' pgs. 305-344. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0-06-061659-8.</ref> which became [[Early Christianity]] after the [[Great Commission]] spread his teachings to the [[Gentiles]].<ref name=JesusApoc2>This includes the belief that Jesus was the Messiah. [[Michael L. Brown|Brown, Michael L.]] ''Answering Jewish Objections to Jesus: Messianic Prophecy Objections'' Baker Books, 2003. ISBN 0-8010-6423-6. Brown shows how the Christian concept of Messiah relates to ideas current in late Second Temple period Judaism. See also [[Joseph Klausner|Klausner, Joseph]], ''The Messianic Idea in Israel: From its Beginning to the Completion of the Mishnah,'' Macmillan 1955; [[Raphael Patai|Patai, Raphael]], ''Messiah Texts,'' Wayne State University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-8143-1850-9; [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]], ''The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus,'' pg. 461. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0-06-061659-8. Patai and Klausner state that one interpretation of the prophecies reveal either two Messiahs, Messiah ben Yosef (the dying Messiah) and Messiah ben David (the Davidic King), or one Messiah who comes twice. Crossan cites the Essene teachings about the twin Messiahs. Compare to the Christian doctrine of the [[Second Coming]].</ref> This is distinct from an earlier commission Jesus gave to the [[twelve Apostles]], limited to "the lost sheep of Israel" and not including the Gentiles or Samaritans ({{niv|Matthew|10|Matt 10}}).
:*The crucifixion: "...they said (in boast), "We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah";- but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not: Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise... (4:157-158) Interestingly, the proposal that another person was crucified in Jesus' stead is anticipated in a text from Nag Hammadi, ''The Second Treatise of the Great Seth'' (56: 6-19).


Of special interest has been [[Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament|the names and titles ascribed to Jesus]]. According to most critical historians, Jesus probably lived in [[Galilee]] for most of his life and he probably spoke [[Aramaic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. The name "Jesus" is an [[English language|English]] transliteration of the [[Latin language|Latin]] (''Iēsus'') which in turn comes from the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] name (''{{Polytonic|Ιησους}}''). Since most scholars hold that Jesus was an Aramaic-speaking Jew living in Galilee around 30 AD/CE, it is highly improbable that he had a Greek personal name. Further examination of the [[Septuagint]] finds that the Greek, in turn, is a transliteration of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name [[Joshua|Yehoshua]] (יהושוע) (''Yeho'' - [[Yahweh]] [is] ''shua`'' - help/salvation) or the shortened Hebrew/[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] [[Yeshua]] or Jeshua (ישוע). As a result, scholars believe that one of these was most likely the name that Jesus was known by during his lifetime by his peers.<ref>Durant, Will. ''Caesar and Christ''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. p. 558; John P. Meier, ''A Marginal Jew''. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205-7;</ref>
Muslims believe that Jesus revealed a holy book called the ''Injil'' ("Evangel"), but do not identify this with any part of the New Testament as it exists today.


''[[Christ]]'' (which is a title and not a part of his name) is an Anglicization of the Greek term for ''[[Messiah]]'', and literally means "anointed one". Historians have debated what this title might have meant at the time Jesus lived; some historians have suggested that other titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament (e.g. Lord, [[Son of man|Son of Man]], and Son of God) had meanings in the first century quite different from those meanings ascribed today: see [[Names and titles of Jesus]].
In addition to the Qur'an, a number of hadiths and other traditional sayings quote Jesus. For example he is made to observe that "The world is a bridge, so pass over it and do not inhabit it" (from a Fatehpur Sikri inscription commissioned by Akbar). This raises the fascinating question of how early Muslims were exposed to traditions about Jesus, and whether these might have included authentic strands no longer extant anywhere else.


=== Historicity of the texts ===
(Qur'an translations by Yusuf Ali)
{{see also|Historicity of Jesus}}


Most modern Biblical scholars hold that the works describing Jesus were initially communicated by [[oral history|oral tradition]], and were not committed to writing until several decades after Jesus' crucifixion. The earliest [[extant text]]s which refer to Jesus are [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s letters, which are usually dated from the mid-1st century. Paul wrote that he only saw Jesus in visions, but that they were divine [[revelation]]s and hence authoritative ([[Epistle to the Galatians|Gal]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:11-12;&version=31; 1:11–12]). The earliest extant texts describing Jesus in any detail were the four [[New Testament]] [[Gospel]]s. These texts, being part of the [[Biblical canon]], have received much more analysis and acceptance from Christian sources than other possible sources for information on Jesus.
==Jesus in Western culture==
Because of the historic impact of Christianity on the western world the figure of Jesus appears prominently in western cultures. He is a perennial subject of art and discussion both in and out of the church. Much of his influence is particularly tied to the religion of Christianity that claims Jesus as its central figure and the influence various church and para-church organizations wield within society. The impact of the Biblical Jesus of western life and culture is no better illustrated than by the use of the Gregorian Calendar. Additionally, the widespread celebration surrounding the holidays of Easter and Christmas are further testimonies to the effects of Jesus on western culture.


Many other early Christian texts have surfaced detailing events in Jesus' life and teachings, though they were not included when [[Biblical canon|the Bible was canonised]] due to a belief that they were [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]], not inspired, or written too long after his death, while others were suppressed because they contradicted what had become the Christian [[orthodoxy]]. It took several centuries before the list of what was and was not part of the Bible became finally fixed, and for much of the early period the [[Book of Revelation]] was not included while works like [[The Shepherd of Hermas]] were.
Although religion, Christianity in particular, is seen to be receding in many western socieities the impact of the man Jesus and the religion that claims him as its key figure are easily seen and attested to throughout the western world.


The books that did not make it into the final list have since become known as the [[New Testament apocrypha]], and the chief amongst them, is the ''[[Gospel of Thomas]]'', a collection of ''[[logia]]'' -  phrases and sayings attributed to Jesus without a narrative framework, only rediscovered in the 20th Century.  Other important apocryphal works that had a heavy influence in forming traditional Christian beliefs include the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], [[Protevangelium of James]], [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]], and [[Acts of Peter]]. A number of Christian traditions (such as [[Saint Veronica|Veronica's veil]] and the [[Assumption of Mary]]) are found not in the canonical gospels but in these and other apocryphal works.
==Jewish views of Jesus==
 
{{Main|Jewish views of Jesus}}
=== Possible earlier texts ===
 
Some texts with even earlier historical or mythological information on Jesus are speculated to have existed prior to the Gospels,<ref name=document>[[Henry Bettenson]], [[Chris Maunder]], ''Documents of the Christian Church'' (3rd edition), Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-288071-3 </ref> though none have been found. Based on the unusual similarities and differences (see [[synoptic problem]]) between the [[Synoptic Gospels]] — [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], the first three canonical gospels — many Biblical scholars have suggested that [[oral tradition]] and [[logia]] (such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]] and the theoretical [[Q document]])<ref name=aramaicnt.org>[[Daniel Gaztambide]], [http://www.aramaicnt.org/site/index.php?mode=article&entry=30 "The Synoptic Problem: Two-Source Hypothesis and Q"], AramaicNT.org, accessed August 19, 2006.</ref> probably played a strong role in initially passing down stories of Jesus, and may have inspired some of the Synoptic Gospels.
 
Specifically, many scholars believe that the Q document and the Gospel of Mark were the [[two-source hypothesis|two sources]] used for the gospels of Matthew and Luke; however, other theories, such as the older [[Augustinian hypothesis]], continue to hold sway with some Biblical scholars. Another theoretical document is the [[Signs Gospel]], believed to have been a source for the [[Gospel of John]].<ref name=aramaicnt.org>[[Daniel Gaztambide]], [http://www.aramaicnt.org/site/index.php?mode=article&entry=28 "So Sayeth The Lord... According to Who?"], AramaicNT.org, accessed March 14, 2006.</ref>
 
There are also early noncanonical gospels which may predate the canonical Gospels, although few surviving fragments have been found. Among these are the [[Unknown Berlin Gospel]], the [[Oxyrhynchus Gospels]], the [[Egerton Gospel]], the [[Fayyum Fragment]], the [[Dialogue of the Saviour]], the [[Gospel of the Ebionites]], the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]], and the [[Gospel of the Nazarenes]]. While the earliest surviving manuscripts and fragments of these texts are dated later than the earliest surviving manuscripts and fragments of the canonical Gospels, they are probably copies of earlier manuscripts whose precise dates are unknown.
 
=== Questions of reliability ===
 
As a result of the likely several-decade time gap between the writing of the Gospels and the events they describe, the accuracy of all early texts claiming the existence of Jesus or details of Jesus' life have been disputed by various parties. However, most scholars accept many details of the Gospel narratives.<ref name=habermas>[[Gary Habermas|Habermas, Gary]], "Resurrection Research from 1975 to the Present: What are Critical Scholars Saying?" ''Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus,'' 3.2 (2005), pp. 135-153. [http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3.2_2005/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3.2_2005.htm Available online]; accessed March 14, 2006.</ref> The authors of the Gospels are traditionally thought to have been witnesses to the events included. After the original oral stories were written down, they were transcribed, and later translated into other languages. Several Biblical historians have responded to claims of the unreliability of the gospel accounts by pointing out that historical documentation is often biased and second-hand, and frequently dates from several decades after the events described.
 
The [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the [[Scientific Revolution]] brought skepticism regarding the historical accuracy of these texts. Although some critical scholars, including archeologists, continue to use them as points of reference in the study of ancient Near Eastern history,<ref name=archeology>Craig S. Hawkins, [http://www.apologeticsinfo.org/papers/actsarcheology.html "The Book of Acts and Archaeology"], Apologetics Information Ministry, accessed March 14, 2006.</ref> others have come to view the texts as cultural and literary documents, generally regarding them as part of the genre of literature called [[hagiography]], an account of a holy person regarded as representing a moral and divine ideal. Hagiography has a principal aim of the glorification of the religion itself and of the example set by the perfect holy person represented as its central focus.
 
Some say that the Gospel accounts are neither objective nor accurate, since they were written or compiled by his followers and seem to exclusively portray a positive, idealized view of Jesus, while others point to the lack of any non-Christian sources until Josephus in the year 93. Those who have a [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] view of history generally do not believe in divine intervention or [[miracles]], such as the resurrection of Jesus mentioned by the Gospels. One method used to estimate the factual accuracy of stories in the gospels is known as the "[[criterion of embarrassment]]", which holds that stories about events with embarrassing aspects (such as the denial of Jesus by [[Saint Peter|Peter]], or the fleeing of Jesus' followers after his arrest) would likely not have been included if those accounts were fictional.
 
=== External influences on gospel development ===
{{see also|Historicity of Jesus|Historical Jesus|Cultural and historical background of Jesus}}
 
[[Image:ChristAsSol.jpg|thumb|left|[[Vatican City|Vatican]] mosaic, 3rd c.: mythical [[Sol Invictus]]]]
 
Many scholars, such as [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], do not see significant similarity between the pagan myths and Christianity. Grant states in ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'' that "Judaism was a milieu to which doctrines of the deaths and rebirths, of mythical gods seemed so entirely foreign that the emergence of such a fabrication from its midst is very hard to credit."<ref name=grant>[[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'', Scribner, 1995 p. 199. ISBN 0-684-81867-1</ref>
 
However, some scholars believe that the gospel accounts of Jesus have little or no historical basis. At least in part, this is because they see many similarities between stories about Jesus and older myths of [[Paganism|pagan]] godmen such as [[Mithras]], [[Apollo]], [[Attis]], [[Horus]] and [[Osiris-Dionysus]], leading to conjectures that the pagan myths were adopted by some authors of early accounts of Jesus to form a [[syncretism]] with Christianity. A small minority, such as [[Earl Doherty]], carry this further and propose that the gospels are actually a reworking of the older myths and [[Jesus as myth|not based on a historical figure]]. While these connections are disputed by many, it is nevertheless true that many elements of Jesus' story as told in the Gospels have parallels in pagan mythology, where miracles such as [[virgin birth]] were well-known. Some Christian authors, such as [[C. S. Lewis]] and [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], account for this with the belief that such myths were created by ancient pagans with vague and imprecise [[prophecy|foreknowledge]] of the Gospels; in other words the pagans gave prophetic attributes of the Christ as shown in the Jewish Torah and Prophets to their particular deity.
 
== Jesus in Christianity ==
 
The nature of Jesus is the central issue of [[Christology]]. The theological concept of Jesus as Christ was refined by a series of [[ecumenical council]]s beginning in the fourth century AD, the first and second of which produced the [[Nicene Creed | Nicene]] (or Niceno-Constantinopolitan) Creed:
 
 
These councils were convened in an atmosphere of politically-charged theological debate, and their conclusions absolutely do not represent a consensus of Christian views at the time. Indeed, each successive council resulted in some new branch of Christianity falling out of communion with the others: [[Nestorianism]] after the third; the [[non-Chalcedonian churches]] after the fourth, and so on.
 
The [[Orthodox Church]] accepts seven such councils; the [[Roman Catholic Church]], 2? (the most recent being [[Vatican II]]). Mainline Protestants acknowledge at least the Nicene and Apostles Creeds, along with their various confessions. The [[Baptist church]]es reject creeds as un-biblical, but would have no serious objection to the
 
[[Paul of Tarsus]] wrote that just as sin entered the world through [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] (known as [[The Fall of Man]]), so salvation from sin comes through Jesus, the second Adam ({{niv|Romans|5:12-21|Rom 5:12–21}}; {{niv|1_Corinthians|15:21-22|1 Cor 15:21–22}}). Most Christians believe that Jesus' death and resurrection provide salvation not only from personal sin, but from the condition of sin itself. This ancestral or [[original sin]]<ref name=originalsin>Western Christianity, following [[Augustine of Hippo]], generally affirms that humanity inherited both the tendency to sin and the guilt of Adam and Eve's sin. The doctrine in Eastern Christianity is that humanity inherited the tendency to sin, but not the guilt for Adam and Eve's sin. This doctrine, also adopted by some in the Western Church as a form of [[Arminianism]], is sometimes called [[semipelagianism]]. A minority of Christians affirm [[Pelagianism]], which states that neither the condition nor the guilt of original sin is inherited; rather, we all freely face the same choice between sin and salvation that Adam and Eve did. Pelagianism was opposed by the Council of Carthage in 418 AD/CE.</ref> separated humanity from God, making all liable to condemnation to eternal punishment in [[Hell]] ({{niv|Romans|3:23|Rom 3:23}}). However, Jesus' death and resurrection reconciled humanity with God, granting eternal life in [[Heaven]] to the faithful ({{niv|John|14:2-3|John 14:2–3}}).
 
==== Trinitarian views ====
 
Most Christians believe that Jesus is [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]], being one of the three divine persons who make up the single [[Ousia|substance]] of God, a concept known as the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]]. In this respect, Jesus is both distinct and yet of the same being as [[God the Father]] and the [[God the Holy Spirit]].<ref name="Trinity">{{niv|John|1:1|John 1:1}}; {{niv|John|8:58|8:58}}; {{niv|John|10:30|10:30}}</ref> They believe Jesus is the Son of God, and also the Messiah. Following {{niv|john|1:1|John 1:1,}} Christians have identified Jesus as "the Word" (or [[Logos#Use in Christianity|Logos]]) of God. Most also believe that Jesus' miracles and resurrection are additional proof that he is God. They combine this with the classic proof based on the two rational alternatives in the face of Jesus' repeated claims that he is the one God of Israel (e.g. Jn 8:58): either he is truly God or a bad man (a liar or a lunatic), the latter being dismissed on the basis of Jesus's perceived coherence. <ref>http://www.peterkreeft.com/topics/christ-divinity.htm</ref> Most trinitarian Christians further believe that Jesus has two natures in one person: that he is fully God and fully human, a concept known as the [[hypostatic union]]. However, [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] professes a [[Miaphysite]] interpretation, while the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] professes a form of [[Nestorianism]].
 
==== Nontrinitarian views ====
 
Some Christians profess various [[nontrinitarian]] views. [[Arianism]], denounced as a heresy by the early Church, taught that Jesus is subordinate to God the Father.<ref name="Arian">{{sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=John|chapter=14|verse=28}};</ref> [[Binitarianism|Binitarians]] believe that Jesus is God, although a separate being from God the Father, and that the Holy Spirit is an impersonal force. [[Unitarian Christianity|Unitarian Christians]] believe that Jesus was a [[prophet]] of God, and merely human.
 
The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (Mormons) theology maintains that God the Father (Heavenly Father), Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost are three separate and distinct beings who together constitute the [[Godhead]]. LDS sometimes, although rarely, use the word Trinity to describe this belief, it is slightly different from the traditional doctrine of the Trinity, which maintains that the three are one being. LDS maintains that all three members of the Godhead are eternal and equally divine, but play somewhat different roles. While the Holy Ghost is a spirit without a physical body, the Father and Son do possess distinct, perfected, physical bodies of flesh and bone. Although Mormon theology sees the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost as separate beings, they are considered to be "one God" in purpose.  The [[Book of Mormon]] records in {{sourcetext|source=Book of Mormon|book=3 Nephi|chapter=11|verse=8}} that the resurrected Jesus visited and taught some of the inhabitants of the early Americas after he appeared to his apostles in Jerusalem. Mormons also believe that an [[Great Apostasy#The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|apostasy]] occurred after the death of Christ and his apostles. They believe that Christ and Heavenly Father appeared to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] in [[1820]] as part of a series of heavenly visits to restore the fullness of the gospel of Jesus Christ necessary due to the apostasy. They also believe Jesus (not the Father) is the same as [[Jehovah]] or [[Yahweh]] of the [[Old Testament]] or [[Hebrew Bible]]. See also [[Jesus in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].
 
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] view the term "Son of God" as an indication of Jesus' importance to the creator and his status as God's "only-begotten (unique, one and only) Son" ({{niv|John|3:16|John 3:16}}), the "firstborn of all creation" ({{niv|Colossians|1:15|Col 1:15}}), the one "of whom, and through whom, and to whom, are all things" ({{niv|romans|11:36|Rom 11:36}}). Most [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] believe Jesus to be [[Michael (archangel)|Michael the Archangel]], who became a human to come down to earth.<ref name=Jesus-is-Michael>"Jesus The Ruler "Whose Origin Is From Early Times", ''The Watchtower'', June 15, 1998, p. 22.</ref> They also believe that Jesus died on a single-piece torture stake, not a cross.<ref name=stake>Based on Galatians 3:13 and Acts 5:30. [http://www.watchtower.org/library/jt/article_03.htm Jehovah's Witnesses Official Web Site
], accessed June 8, 2006.</ref>
 
 
==== Other views arising from early Christianity ====
 
The [[Ebionites]], an early [[Jewish Christian]] community, believed that Jesus was the last of the [[Prophet#Prophets in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible)|prophets]] and the [[Messiah]]. They believed that Jesus was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, and thus they rejected the Virgin Birth. The Ebionites were [[Adoptionism|adoptionists]], believing that Jesus was not divine, but became the [[son of God]] at his baptism. They rejected the [[Epistles of Paul]], believing that Jesus kept the [[Mosaic Law]] perfectly and wanted his followers to do the same. However, they felt that Jesus' crucifixion was the ultimate sacrifice, and thus [[animal sacrifice]]s were no longer necessary. Therefore, some Ebionites were [[vegetarian]] and considered both Jesus and [[John the Baptist]] to have been vegetarians.<ref>Bart D. Ehrman, ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 102.</ref> Shemayah Phillips founded a small community of [[Ebionites#Modern Ebionites|modern Ebionites]] in 1985. These Ebionites identify as Jews rather than as Christians, and do not accept Jesus as the [[Jewish Messiah]].
 
In [[Gnosticism]], Jesus is said to have brought the secret knowledge ([[gnosis]]) of the spiritual world necessary for salvation.<ref name=Gnostics>McManners, John, ed., <cite>The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity,</cite> Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 26-31.</ref> Their secret teachings were paths to gnosis, and not gnosis itself. <!-- The previous sentence is necessary to clarify that gnosis is a different concept than the teachings of Scientology. --> While some Gnostics were [[docetism|docetics]], most Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of Christ during his baptism.<ref>Bart D. Ehrman, ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 124-125.</ref> Many Gnostics believed that Christ was an [[Aeons#In Gnosticism|Aeon]] sent by [[Monad (Gnosticism)|a higher deity]] than the evil [[Demiurge#Gnosticism|demiurge]] who created the material world. Some Gnostics believed that Christ had a [[Syzygy#Gnosticism|syzygy]] named [[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]]. The Gnostics tended to [[Gnosticism and the New Testament|interpret the New Testament]] as [[allegory]], and some Gnostics interpreted Jesus himself as an allegory. [[Gnosticism in modern times|Modern Gnosticism]] has been a growing religious movement since fifty-two Gnostic texts were rediscovered at [[Nag Hammadi library|Nag Hammadi]] in 1945. The movement was also given a boost by the publication in [[2006]] of the [[Gospel of Judas]].
 
[[Marcionites]] were 2nd-century [[Gentile]] followers of the Christian theologian [[Marcion of Sinope]]. They believed that Jesus rejected the [[Tanakh|Jewish Scriptures]], or at least the parts that were incompatible with his teachings.<ref name=Wace>[[Henry Wace|Wace, Henry]], [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/info/marcion-wace.html Commentary on Marcion]</ref> Seeing a stark contrast between the vengeful God of the [[Old Testament]] and the loving God of Jesus, Marcion came to the conclusion that the Jewish God and Jesus were two separate deities. Like some Gnostics, Marcionites saw the Jewish God as the evil creator of the world, and Jesus as the savior from the material world. They also believed Jesus was not human, but instead a completely divine spiritual being whose material body, and thus his crucifixion and death, were [[docetism|divine illusions]]. Marcion was the first known early Christian to have created a [[Biblical canon|canon]], which consisted of ten [[Pauline epistles]], and [[Gospel of Marcion|a version]] of the [[Gospel of Luke]] (possibly without the first two chapters that are in modern versions, and without Jewish references),<ref>Bart D. Ehrman, ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 103, p. 104-105, p.108</ref> and his treatise on the ''Antithesis'' between the Old and New Testaments. Marcionism was declared a [[Heresy#Christianity|heresy]] by proto-orthodox Christianity.
 
== Jesus in Islam  ==
{{main|Islamic views of Jesus}}
In [[Islam]], Jesus (known as '''[[Islamic view of Jesus|Isa]]''' in Arabic, [[Arabic]]: عيسى), is considered one of God's most-beloved and important [[prophets of Islam|prophets]] and the Messiah.<ref name=Grand_Mufti_of_Syria>Sheikh Ahmad Kuftaro, [http://www.kuftaro.org/english/Islam/jesus.htm "What is Islam? Jesus"], Kuftaro.org, accessed March 15, 2006.</ref> Like Christian writings, the seventh-century [[Qur'an]] holds that Jesus was born without a biological father to the virgin Mary, by the will of God (in Arabic, [[Allah]]) and for this reason is referred to as ''Isa ibn Maryam'' (English: Jesus son of Mary), a [[matronymic]] (since he had no biological father). (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|3|45}}, {{Quran-usc|19|21}}, {{Quran-usc|19|35}}, {{Quran-usc|21|91}}) In Muslim traditions, Jesus lived a perfect life of nonviolence, showing kindness to humans and animals (similar to the other Islamic prophets), without material possessions, and abstaining from [[sin]].<ref name=Jesus_abstained_from_sin>III&E, [http://www.islam.tc/alhilaal/site/poi.html "Prophethood in Islam"], Accessed March 19, 2006</ref> Most Muslims believe that Jesus abstained from alcohol, and many believe that he also abstained from eating animal flesh. Similarly, Islamic belief also holds that Jesus could perform miracles, but only by the will of God. <ref name=Soundvision.com>[http://www.soundvision.com/Info/Jesus/inIslam.asp "The Islamic and Christian views of Jesus: a comparison"], ISoundvision, accessed March 15, 2006.</ref> However, [[Muslim]]s do not believe Jesus to have divine nature as God nor as the Son of God. Islam greatly separates the status of creatures from the status of the creator and warns against believing that Jesus was divine. (Qu'ran {{Quran-usc|3|59}}, {{Quran-usc|4|171}}, {{Quran-usc-range|5|116|117}}). Muslims believe that Jesus received a gospel from God called the ''[[Injil]]'' in Arabic that corresponds to the Christian New Testament, but that some parts of it have been misinterpreted, misrepresented,  passed over, or textually distorted over time so that they no longer accurately represent God's original message to mankind (See [[Tahrif]]).<ref name=Abdullah_Ibrahim>Abdullah Ibrahim, [http://www.arabicbible.com/islam/hit.htm "The History of the Quran and the Injil"], Arabic Bible Outreach Ministry, accessed March 15, 2006.</ref>
 
Muslims also do not believe in Jesus' sacrificial role, nor do they believe that Jesus died on the cross. In fact, Islam does not accept any human sacrifice for sin (See [[Sin#Islamic conceptions of atonement for sin|Islamic conceptions of atonement for sin]] for further information). Regarding the crucifixion, the Qur'an states that Jesus' death was merely an illusion of God to deceive his enemies, and that Jesus ascended to heaven.<ref name=Grand_Mufti_of_Syria>Sheikh Ahmad Kuftaro, [http://www.kuftaro.org/english/Islam/jesus.htm "What is Islam? Jesus"], Kuftaro.org, accessed March 15, 2006.</ref> (Qur'an {{Quran-usc-range|4|157|158}}.) Based on the quotes attributed to Muhammad, some Muslims believe that Jesus will return to the world in the flesh following [[Imam Mahdi]] to defeat the ''[[Dajjal]]'' (an [[Antichrist]]-like figure, translated as "Deceiver"). <ref name=Mufti_A.H._Elias>Mufti A.H. Elias, [http://www.islam.tc/prophecies/jesus.html "Jesus (Isa) A.S. in Islam, and his Second Coming"], Islam.tc, accessed March 15,2006.</ref> Muslims believe he will descend at [[Damascus]], presently in [[Syria]], once the world has become filled with sin, deception, and injustice; he will then live out the rest of his natural life. Sunni Muslims believe that after his death, Jesus will be buried alongside Muhammad in [[Medina]], presently in [[Saudi Arabia]]. <ref name=AH_Elias>Mufti A.H. Elias, [http://www.islam.tc/prophecies/jesus.html "Jesus (Isa) A.S. in Islam, and his Second Coming"], Islam.tc Network, accessed May 10, 2006.</ref>  However, the sects of [[Sunni Muslim|Sunni]] and [[Shiite Muslim|Shi'ite]] Islam are divided over this issue. Some Islamic scholars like [[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi]] and [[Amin Ahsan Islahi]] question [[hadith|quotes attributed to Muhammad]] regarding a second coming of Jesus, as they believe it is against different verses of the Qur'an.<ref>Geoffrey Parrinder, ''Jesus in the Quran'', p.187, Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1996, ISBN 1-85168-094-2.[http://www.studying-islam.org/articletext.aspx?id=742]</ref><ref>[[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi]], ''Qur'anic Verse regarding Second Coming of Jesus''.[http://www.al-mawrid.org/Content/ViewReaderQuestion.aspx?questionId=318]</ref><ref>''The Second Coming of Jesus'', [http://www.renaissance.com.pk Renaissance - Monthly Islamic Journal], Vol. 14, No. 9, September, 2004.[http://www.renaissance.com.pk/septitl2y4.html]</ref>
 
The [[Ahmadi|Ahmadiyya]] Muslim Movement (accounting for a very small percentage of the total Muslim population) believes that Jesus survived the crucifixion and later travelled to [[Kashmir]], where he lived and died as a prophet under the name of [[Yuz Asaf]] (whose grave they identify in [[Srinagar]]).<ref name=Ahmadiyya_Muslim_Community>M. M. Ahmad, [http://www.alislam.org/library/links/00000094.html#8 "The Lost Tribes of Israel: The Travels of Jesus"], [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]], Accessed March 16, 2006.</ref> Mainstream Muslims, however, consider these views heretical. Also, historical research found these accounts to be without foundation.<ref name=Jesus_India>Günter Grönbold, Jesus In Indien, München: Kösel 1985, ISBN 3-466-2070-1. Norbert Klatt, ''Lebte Jesus in Indien?'', Göttingen: Wallstein 1988.</ref>
 
== Jewish views of Jesus ==
{{main|Judaism's view of Jesus}}
 
[[Judaism]] considers the idea of Jesus being God, or part of a Trinity, or a mediator to God, as heresy.(''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth]]'', II:5) Judaism also does not consider Jesus to be the [[Jewish Messiah|Messiah]] primarily because he did not fulfill the [[Messianic prophecies]] of the [[Tanakh]], nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah.<ref name=notmessiah>Rabbi [[Shraga Simmons]], [http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Why_Jews_Dont_Believe_In_Jesus.asp "Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus"], accessed March 14, 2006; [http://ohr.edu/ask_db/ask_main.php/2637/Q1/ "Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus"], [[Ohr Somayach, Jerusalem|Ohr Samayach]] - ''Ask the Rabbi'', accessed March 14, 2006; [http://www.askmoses.com/qa_detail.html?h=120&o=350 "Why don't Jews believe that Jesus was the messiah?"], [[AskMoses.com]], accessed March 14, 2006.</ref>
 
The ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'' (an authoritative work of [[halakha|Jewish law]]) states:
 
<blockquote>Even Jesus the Nazarene who imagined that he would be [[Jewish Messiah|Messiah]] and was killed by the court, was already prophesied by [[Daniel]]. So that it was said, “And the members of the outlaws of your nation would be carried to make a (prophetic) vision stand. And they stumbled” (Daniel 11.14). Because, is there a greater stumbling-block than this one? So that all of the [[prophet]]s spoke that the Messiah redeems Israel, and saves them, and gathers their banished ones, and strengthens their commandments. And this one caused (nations) to destroy Israel by sword, and to scatter their remnant, and to humiliate them, and to exchange the Torah, and to make the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God. However, the thoughts of the Creator of the world — there is no force in a human to attain them because our ways are not God's ways, and our thoughts not God's thoughts. And all these things of Jesus the Nazarene, and of ([[Muhammad]]) the [[Ishmael]]ite who stood after him — there is no (purpose) but to straighten out the way for the King Messiah, and to restore all the world to serve God together. So that it is said, “Because then I will turn toward the nations (giving them) a clear lip, to call all of them in the name of God and to serve God (shoulder to shoulder as) one shoulder.” (Zephaniah 3.9). Look how all the world already becomes full of the things of the Messiah, and the things of the [[Torah]], and the things of the commandments! And these things spread among the far islands and among the many nations uncircumcised of heart. (''Hilkhot Melakhim'' 11:10–12)<ref name=hilchotmalachim>[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/e511.htm "Hilchot Malachim (laws concerning kings) (Hebrew)"], [[Torah database#Mechon Mamre.28digital freeware.29|MechonMamre.org]], accessed March 14, 2006.</ref></blockquote>
 
[[Reform Judaism]], the modern progressive movement, states <cite>For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an [[apostate]].</cite> (Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #68).<ref name=faqs>[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/10-Reform/section-15.html "Question 18.3.4: Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice?"], faqs.org, accessed March 14, 2006.</ref>
 
According to Jewish tradition, there were no more prophets after [[420 BC|420 BC/BCE]], [[Malachi]] being the last prophet, who lived centuries before Jesus. Judaism states that Jesus did not fulfill the requirements set by the [[Torah]] to prove that he was a prophet. Even if Jesus had produced such a sign, Judaism states that no prophet or dreamer can contradict the laws already stated in the Torah ({{niv|Deuteronomy|13:1-5|Deut 13:1–5}})<ref name=noprophet>Rabbi [[Ephraim Buchwald]], [http://www.njop.org/html/REEH5764-2004.html "Parashat Re'eh 5764-2004: Identifying a True Prophet"], [[National Jewish Outreach Program]], accessed March 14, 2006; Tracey Rich, [http://www.jewfaq.org/prophet.htm "Prophets and Prophecy"], ''Judaism 101'', accessed March 14, 2006; Rabbi Pinchas Frankel, [http://www.ou.org/about/judaism/history.htm "Covenant of History: A Fools Prophecy"], [[Orthodox Union|Orthodox Union of Jewish Congregations of America]], accessed March 14, 2006;Laurence Edwards, [http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=2819&pge_prg_id=26382&pge_id=3453 "Torat Hayim - Living Torah: No Rest(s) for the Wicked"], [[Union for Reform Judaism|Union of American Hebrew Congregations]], accessed March 14, 2006.</ref>


==Humanist views of Jesus==
Many humanists and non-theists have an admiration for Jesus as a moral example and sometimes as a spiritual teacher, although there are obviously different meanings in the word. Most humanists believe that Jesus probably did exist, although some follow mythicist scholars in thinking that the stories of Jesus are myths. Some humanists tend to admire the direction of Jesus' anti-authoritarian, anti-absolutist morality, and the challenge they present to the ethics of the [[Old Testament]]<ref>British Humanist Association, [http://www.humanism.org.uk/site/cms/contentViewArticle.asp?article=1212 A humanist discussion of... Jesus] (2006)</ref>.


[[Thomas Jefferson]], one of the Founding Fathers that many consider to have been a deist, created a "Jefferson Bible" for the Indians entitled "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth" that included only Jesus' ethical teachings. Similarly, [[Thomas Paine]] wrote of the Bible in his controversial book ''The Age of Reason''.


==Mandaean views of Jesus==
[[Mandaeanism]] regards Jesus as a deceiving prophet (mšiha kdaba) of the false Jewish god Adunay, and an opponent of the good prophet [[John the Baptist]], although they do believe that John baptized Jesus.
[[Mandaeanism]] regards Jesus as a deceiving prophet (mšiha kdaba) of the false Jewish god Adunay, and an opponent of the good prophet [[John the Baptist]], although they do believe that John baptized Jesus.


The [[New Age]] movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus, with some representatives (such as [[A Course In Miracles]]) going so far as to trance-[[channeling (mediumistic)|channel]] him. Many recognize him as a "great teacher" (or "[[Ascended Master]]") similar to [[Buddha]], and teach that Christhood is something that all may attain. At the same time, many New Age teachings, such as [[reincarnation]], appear to reflect a certain discomfort with traditional Christianity. Numerous New Age subgroups claim Jesus as a supporter, often incorporating contrasts with or protests against the Christian mainstream. Thus, for example, [[Theosophy]] and its offshoots have Jesus studying [[esotericism]] in the [[Himalaya]]s or [[Egypt]] during his "lost years."
==New Age views of Jesus==
 
{{main|Neoapocrypha}}
There are others who emphasize Jesus' moral teachings. Many [[humanism|humanists]], [[atheism|atheists]] and [[agnosticism|agnostics]] empathize with these moral principles. [[Thomas Jefferson]], one of the Founding Fathers that many consider to have been a [[deism|deist]], created a "[[Jefferson Bible]]" for the Indians entitled "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth" that included only Jesus' ethical teachings.
The [[New Age]] movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus, with some representatives (such as [[Neoapocrypha#A_Course_in_Miracles_.281976.29|''A Course in Miracles'']]) going so far as to trance-[[channeling (mediumistic)|channel]] him. Many recognize him as a "great teacher" (or "[[Ascended Master]]") similar to [[Buddha]], and teach that Christhood is something that all may attain. At the same time, many New Age teachings, such as [[reincarnation]], appear to reflect a discomfort with traditional Christianity. Many New Age subgroups claim Jesus as a supporter, often incorporating contrasts with or protests against the Christian mainstream. Thus, for example, [[Theosophy]] and its offshoots have Jesus studying [[esotericism]] in the [[Himalaya]]s or [[Egypt]] during his "lost years."
 
==Legacy==
=== Cultural effect of Jesus ===
 
[[Image:Michelangelo Petersdom Pieta.JPG|thumb|left|''[[Pietà]]'', [[Michelangelo]], 16th c.: Jesus' mother Mary holds the body of her dead son]]
 
{{see also|Images of Jesus|Dramatic portrayals of Jesus|Jesus in popular culture}}
 
According to most Christian interpretations of the [[Bible]], the theme of Jesus' preachings was that of [[repentance]], forgiveness of sin, grace, and the coming of the [[Kingdom of God]]. Jesus extensively trained disciples who, after his death, interpreted and spread his teachings. Within a few decades his followers comprised a religion clearly distinct from [[Judaism]]. Christianity spread throughout the [[Roman Empire]] under a version known as [[Nicene Christianity]] and became the [[state religion]] under [[Constantine the Great]]. Over the centuries, it spread to most of [[Europe]], and around the world.
 
Jesus has been [[Images of Jesus|drawn, painted, sculpted]], and [[Dramatic portrayals of Jesus|portrayed on stage and in films]] in many different ways, both serious and [[Jesus in Pop culture|humorous]]. In fact most medieval [[art]] and [[literature]], and many since, were centered around the figure of Jesus. A number of popular novels, such as ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'', have also portrayed various ideas about Jesus. Many of the sayings attributed to Jesus have become part of the culture of [[Western world|Western civilization]]. There are many items purported to be [[relics of Jesus]], of which the most famous are the [[Shroud of Turin]] and the [[Sudarium of Oviedo]].
 
Other legacies include a view of God as more fatherly, merciful, and more forgiving, and the growth of a belief in an [[afterlife]] and in the [[resurrection of the dead]]. His teaching promoted the value of those who had commonly been regarded as inferior: women, the poor, ethnic outsiders, children, prostitutes, the sick, prisoners, etc. Jesus and his message have been interpreted, explained and understood by many people. Jesus has been explained notably by [[Paul of Tarsus]], [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Martin Luther]], and more recently by [[C.S. Lewis]].
 
For some, the legacy of Jesus has been a long history of [[Christianity and anti-Semitism|Christian anti-Semitism]], although in the wake of [[the Holocaust]] many Christian groups have gone to considerable lengths to reconcile with Jews and to promote inter-faith dialogue and mutual respect. For others, Christianity has often been linked to European [[colonialism]] (see [[British Empire]], [[Portuguese Empire]], [[Spanish Empire]], [[French colonial empire]], [[Dutch colonial empire]]); conversely, Christians have often found themselves as oppressed minorities in Asia, the Middle East, and in the [[Maghreb]].
 
== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references />
</div>
 
== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
 
{{col-2}}
 
* '''General Topics'''
** [[YHWH]]
** [[God]]
** [[Alaha]]
** [[Prayer]]
** [[Christianity]]
** [[Anno Domini]] and [[Common Era]] (which show how Jesus' birth has influenced the modern day calendar)
** [[INRI]]
** [[Nazarene]]
** The [[Bible]]
** [[List of books about Jesus]]
* '''Jesus and History'''
** [[Christian apologetics]]
** [[Apostolic Succession|Apostolic Succession of Jesus]]
** [[Genealogy of Jesus]]
** [[Historical Jesus]]
** [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]
** [[Historicity of Jesus]]
** [[Jesus Myth]]
** [[Jesus Seminar]]
* '''Environment of Jesus'''
** [[Cultural and historical background of Jesus|Cultural background of Jesus]]
** [[Race of Jesus]]
** [[Biblical Jesus]]
 
{{col-2}}
 
{{sisterlinks|Jesus}}
 
* '''New Testament Jesus'''
** [[Miracles of Jesus]]
** [[Death and Resurrection of Jesus]]
** [[Sermon on the Mount]]
* '''Views on Jesus'''
** [[Religious perspectives on Jesus]]
** [[Islamic view of Jesus]]
** [[Pauline Christianity]]
** [[Apocrypha]] and [[Folk Christianity]] include many stories about Jesus besides those in the Bible.
** [[Jesus Christ in popular culture]]
* '''Related topics'''
** [[List of founders of major religions]]
** [[List of people who have been considered deities]]
** [[List of people who have claimed to be Jesus]]
** [[List of messiah claimants]]
{{col-end}}
 
== References ==
 
* [[Dale Allison|Allison, Dale]]. ''Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet.''  Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1999. ISBN 0-8006-3144-7
* [[Raymond E. Brown|Brown, Raymond E.]]. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' New York: Doubleday, 1997. ISBN 0-385-24767-2
* Cohen, Shaye J.D. ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah.'' Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1988. ISBN 0-664-25017-3
* Cohen, Shaye J.D. ''The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. ISBN 0-520-22693-3
* [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]]. ''The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant.'' New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993. ISBN 0-06-061629-6
* [[Guy Davenport]] and [[Benjamin Urrutia]]. ''The Logia of Yeshua ; The Sayings of Jesus''. Washington, DC: 1996. ISBN 1-887178-70-8
* De La Potterie, Ignace. "The Hour of Jesus." New York: Alba House, 1989.
* Durant, Will. ''Caesar and Christ.'' New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. ISBN 0-671-11500-6
* [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]].  ''The Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-514183-0
* [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]]. ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-515462-2
* [[Paula Fredriksen|Fredriksen, Paula]]. ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity.'' New York: Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0-679-76746-0
* [[Paula Fredriksen|Fredriksen, Paula]]. ''From Jesus to Christ.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-300-04864-5
* Finegan, Jack. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology'', revised ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. ISBN 1-56563-143-9.
* [[John P. Meier|Meier, John P.]], ''A Marginal Jew:  Rethinking the Historical Jesus'', New York: [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Doubleday]],
:  v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0-385-26425-9
:  v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994.  ISBN 0-385-46992-6
:  v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4
 
* O'Collins, Gerald. ''Interpreting Jesus.'' Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1983.
* [[Jaroslav Pelikan|Pelikan, Jaroslav]]. ''Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-300-07987-7
* Robinson, John A. T. ''Redating the New Testament.'' Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001 (original 1977). ISBN 1-57910-527-0.
* [[E.P. Sanders|Sanders, E.P.]] ''The Historical Figure of Jesus.'' New York: Penguin, 1996. ISBN 0-14-014499-4
* Sanders, E.P. ''Jesus and Judaism.'' Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8006-2061-5
* [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1981. ISBN 0-8006-1443-7
* [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''The Religion of Jesus the Jew.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1993. ISBN 0-8006-2797-0
* [[Geza Vermes|Vermes, Geza]]. ''Jesus in his Jewish Context.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0-8006-3623-6
* [[A.N. Wilson|Wilson, A.N.]] ''Jesus.'' London: Pimlico, 2003. ISBN 0-7126-0697-1
* [[Tom Wright (theologian)|Wright, N.T.]] ''Jesus and the Victory of God.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1997. ISBN 0-8006-2682-6
* [[Tom Wright (theologian)|Wright, N.T.]] ''The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0-8006-2679-6
 
== External links ==
{{col-begin}}
 
{{col-2}}
* [http://about-jesus.org About-Jesus.org] (Christian)
* [http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Jesus Jesus Christ at WikiChristian]
* [http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ] ''In Parallel Latin & English -- The Complete Christ Sayings''
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374c.htm Jesus Christ Catholic Encyclopedia article]
* [http://www.lds.org/library/display/0,4945,90-1-10-1,00.html Latter-day Saint statement on the divinity of Jesus Christ]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/spirwrit-christianity.asp An Hindu perspective on Jesus]
* [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/Jesus%20-%20An%20Islamic%20Perspective.html An Islamic perspective on Jesus]
* [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/christ.html The Historic & Reformation View of Jesus Christ]: Solus Christus, Sola Gratia, Sola Fide, Sola Scriptura, Soli Deo Gloria
* [http://www.christnotes.org/dictionary.php?dict=sbd&id=2398 Jesus Christ] - Smith's Bible Dictionary article
 
{{col-2}}
 
'''Historical and skeptical views'''
 
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/history/jesus.htm Overview of the Life of Jesus] A summary of New Testament accounts.
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/ From Jesus to Christ] — A [[Frontline (PBS TV series)|Frontline]] documentary on Jesus and early Christianity.
* [http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/indexb.html The Jewish Roman World of Jesus]
* [http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/jhcjp.htm The Jesus Puzzle] - [[Earl Doherty]]'s website.
* [http://www.geocities.com/paulntobin/jesus.html Skeptic's Guide to Jesus]
 
 
 
{{col-end}}
 
*
 
{{Persondata
|NAME=Jesus
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Christ, Jesus
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Religious figure that founded Christianity
|DATE OF BIRTH=circa 4 BC
|PLACE OF BIRTH=Traditionally [[Bethlehem]], [[Iudaea Province]]
|DATE OF DEATH=circa 30
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Jerusalem]], [[Iudaea Province]]
}}
 
[[Category:Jesus|*]]
[[Category:God|Jesus]]
[[Category:New Testament people]]
[[Category:Disputed convictions]]
[[Category:Jews]]
[[Category:0s BC births]]
[[Category:1st century deaths]]
[[Category:Musical theatre characters]]
 
{{Link FA|de}}


[[af:Jesus Christus]]
==References==
[[am:ኢየሱስ]]
{{Reflist}}[[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]]
[[ang:Iesus Crist]]
[[ar:مسيح]]
[[az:İsa]]
[[bn:যীশূ]]
[[be:Езус Хрыстус]]
[[bi:Jisas Kraes]]
[[bs:Isus]]
[[bg:Исус Христос]]
[[ca:Jesús de Natzaret]]
[[cv:Иисус Христос]]
[[cs:Ježíš Kristus]]
[[cy:Iesu Grist]]
[[da:Jesus fra Nazaret]]
[[pdc:Yeesus Grischdus]]
[[de:Jesus von Nazaret]]
[[arc:ܝܫܘ]]
[[ee:Yesu Kristo]]
[[et:Jeesus]]
[[el:Ιησούς Χριστός]]
[[es:Jesús de Nazaret]]
[[eo:Jesuo Kristo]]
[[fr:Jésus de Nazareth]]
[[ga:Íosa Críost]]
[[gd:Iosa Chrìosd]]
[[ko:예수 그리스도]]
[[hy:Յիսուս Քրիստոս]]
[[hi:ईसा मसीह]]
[[hr:Isus]]
[[ilo:Jesus]]
[[id:Yesus Kristus]]
[[ia:Jesus Christo]]
[[is:Jesús]]
[[it:Gesù]]
[[he:ישו]]
[[kn:ಯೇಸು ಕ್ರಿಸ್ತ]]
[[ka:ქრისტე]]
[[kk:Иса]]
[[kw:Yesu Krist]]
[[kv:Исус Христос]]
[[kj:Jesus Kristus]]
[[sw:Yesu]]
[[ku:Îsa]]
[[la:Iesus Christus]]
[[lv:Jēzus Kristus]]
[[lb:Jesus vun Nazaret]]
[[lt:Jėzus Kristus]]
[[li:Zjezus Christus]]
[[lg:Jesu Kristo]]
[[hu:Jézus]]
[[mk:Исус Христос]]
[[ml:യേശു ക്രിസ്തു]]
[[mi:Ihu Karaiti]]
[[mn:Есүс Христ]]
[[ms:Yesus Kristus]]
[[fj:Jisu Karisito]]
[[nl:Jezus Christus]]
[[ja:イエス・キリスト]]
[[no:Jesus Kristus]]
[[nn:Jesus]]
[[nrm:Jésus-Chrît]]
[[ny:Yesu Kristu]]
[[hz:Jesus Kristus]]
[[ug:ظةيسا]]
[[pa:ਈਸਾ ਮਸੀਹ]]
[[pl:Jezus Chrystus]]
[[pt:Jesus]]
[[ro:Isus din Nazaret]]
[[rm:Gesu da Nazaret]]
[[ru:Иисус Христос]]
[[sm:Iesu Keriso]]
[[sq:Jezusi]]
[[scn:Gesù Cristu]]
[[simple:Jesus]]
[[sk:Ježiš Kristus]]
[[sl:Jezus Kristus]]
[[sr:Исус Христос]]
[[sh:Isus]]
[[fi:Jeesus]]
[[sv:Jesus]]
[[tl:Hesus]]
[[ta:இயேசு கிறிஸ்து]]
[[tt:Ğaysa]]
[[th:พระเยซู]]
[[ty:Iesu Mesia]]
[[vi:Giê-xu]]
[[tg:Исо]]
[[tpi:Jisas]]
[[tr:İsa]]
[[tk:Иса Месих]]
[[tw:Yesu Kristo]]
[[uk:Ісус Христос]]
[[uz:Iso Masih]]
[[ts:Yesu Kreste]]
[[yi:ישוע]]
[[zh-yue:耶穌]]
[[zh:耶稣]]

Latest revision as of 16:01, 4 September 2024

This article is developed but not approved.
 Main Article
 Discussion
Related Articles  [?]
Bibliography  [?]
External Links  [?]
Citable Version  [?]
 
https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Jesus&printable=yes
This editable, developed Main Article is subject to a disclaimer.

By virtue of the impact of Christianity, Jesus (also known as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth) is one of the most influential people in history. European literature, art and music would be unimaginable without their Christian heritage, and translations of the Christian Bible number among the foundational literature of many languages. Most of the world now follows the Gregorian calendar, based on the supposed number of years since Jesus' birth.

The question "Who was Jesus?" seems a simple one, yet the answers which have been proposed defy easy summary. Most people regard him as the founder of Christianity. Christians (with some exceptions) worship him as God incarnate, the Second Person of the Trinity. Muslims recognize Jesus as one of the prophets of Islam, without attributing divinity to him. Even humanists who reject the religious claims, or who doubt the miracles attributed to him, have been known to admire Jesus as a great moral teacher. Mormons believe that Jesus came to North America and preached to the inhabitants after leaving Judea. Jews do not believe that Jesus was divine, nor that he was the Messiah or a prophet.

Among historians, almost every aspect of Jesus' life is either unknown or disputed. Most scholars would accept the description of him as a first-century Palestinian Jew--more specifically, as an itinerant preacher/healer/exorcist active in Galilee and Judea. We may be reasonably confident that he was baptized by John the Baptist in the AD 20s, and crucified at the command of Roman governor Pontius Pilate during the late 20s or early 30s AD. With less certainty, scholars have characterized Jesus as a wisdom teacher; a social reformer; a rabbi; a folk magician; or an apocalyptic who expected the world to end. Especially controversial would be the suggestions that he intended to found the religion of Christianity, or that he believed (or declared) himself to be the Messiah.

Name

Jesus has the same name as Old Testament hero Joshua, whose Hebrew name Yehoshua (יהושוע) becomes Yeshua (ישוע) in Aramaic (Jesus' native language). Greek being the lingua franca of the Roman Empire as well as early Christianity, Yeshua came to be rendered as Iesous (Ιησους). It entered English by way of Latin (Iēsus). [1]

Christ is a title and not a part of his name. Christos (χριστος) is the Greek translation for the Hebrew Moshiach ("Messiah"), and literally means "anointed one." The original reference was to the family of ceremonies for crowning a king, or ordaining a prophet, which involved pouring oil upon the head. Whether these and other titles were used during his lifetime, or by him, and what they might have meant, are all uncertain.

Jesus is often referred to as "Jesus of Nazareth," after the town where he grew up, sometimes as a secular alternative to "Jesus Christ."

Dates

None of the historical sources give the year of Jesus' birth, the year of his death, or his age at death in unambiguous form. Tradition says that he was born towards the end of the reign of Herod the Great, who died in 4 BC. Some of the earliest estimates of his birth are 6-7 BC, and it is widely agreed that Jesus was executed during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (AD 26-36). Biblical scholars believe he lived roughly 33 1/2 years. Recent scholarship has focused on the years AD 29, 30, or 33 as the most likely possibilities of the date of his crucifixion.

Sources

The major source of historical knowledge about Jesus is the Christian Gospels, which are based on documents written within living memory of the events described in them. The Letters of St Paul, which are older than the Gospels, also attest to the historical reality of Jesus. There are no contemporary references to Jesus from non-Christian sources, although there are a few from the following decades, in writers such as Tacitus and Pliny the Younger. Some writers therefore deny that Jesus was a historical figure at all.

The canonical gospels--Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John--are religious biographies that stress Jesus' fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy, his teachings on the Kingdom of God or Kingdom of Heaven, and the miracles which attended his life and death. The oldest of these, Mark, is usually dated to within a few years of AD 70. John is generally regarded as the latest, though the dates proposed for it vary widely (from the AD 70's to the early 2nd century). The four are linked not only by having been selected by the early church for preservation and dissemination, but also through their textual history. In particular, the synoptics (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) share much material (often verbatim), albeit rearranged.

The Q Document is a hypothetical document reconstructed from the synoptic gospels, with some scholars adding corollary readings from non-canonical "sayings Gospels" such as the Gospel of Thomas. It is based on the observation that Matthew and Luke each incorporate almost the whole of Mark, but add other material. As much of this added material is identical--consisting largely of sayings attributed to Jesus--many scholars speculate that Matthew and Luke copied not only Mark but another source, no longer extant, called Q (an abbreviation for the German Quelle, meaning "wellspring" or "source"). If Q existed in a collected form, it could have been a written document or an oral tradition. Q has become an important topic in Jesus research, because the material thus identified might constitute an older and perhaps more reliable stratum.

Ancient non-Christian sources include scattered references to Jesus in the writings of Flavius Josephus, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus, and Suetonius. Josephus was a Jewish historian who, in about AD 93, briefly described the careers of John the Baptist and Jesus. One passage, the so-called Testimonium Flavianum, is suspected to have suffered corruption by Christian editors. Around AD 100, Pliny the Younger wrote to the emperor Trajan for advice on what policy to adopt toward Christians in his jurisdiction, noting several basic details about the sect. The Roman historians Tacitus and Suetonius, writing in the early 2nd century, also mention Jesus briefly (if the latter's "Chrestus" in fact refers to the same man).

Noncanonical Christian writings date from the 2nd century on, although elements of them may be based on earlier sources which are now unknown. This includes some literature not recognized by the emerging Christian orthodoxy, such as the Gospel of Thomas (see above), as well as the writings of the church fathers (which were recognized, but not as canon).

The Talmuds, ancient compilations of Jewish law and tradition, include some 3rd-century recollections of 1st-century events. These may include scattered (and uncomplimentary) references to Jesus.

Jesus in the canonical Gospels

For more information, see: Canonical Gospels.

Christians normally encounter the story of Jesus as a conflation of the canonical gospels, which many churches read from the pulpit according to a regular cycle. (Indeed, the synoptics may have been composed around such a calendar.) Many of the events listed here are associated with Christian holidays, such as Christmas (for Jesus' birth) or Easter (for his resurrection).

Jesus' geneaology. The first sentence of the New Testament (Matthew 1:1) calls Jesus "the son of David, the son of Abraham," thereby linking him to two key figures of the Old Testament. Abraham is the ancestor of the Jewish people. King David's reign marks a high point in the history of Israel, whose hoped-for revival was expressed through messianic expectations. Matthew (1:1-17) and Luke (3:23-38) give somewhat different lists of ancestors.

The Nativity. Both Matthew and Luke place Jesus' birth in Bethlehem (but have him grow up in Nazareth), and affirm the virginal conception. Matthew (chapters 1 and 2) adds the Star of Bethlehem, the Adoration of the Magi, the Flight into Egypt, and the Massacre of the Innocents. Luke (chapters 1 and 2) gives us the Annunciation, the Census of Quirinius, and the appearance of angels to shepherds in the field.

The Epiphany. All four gospels introduce the adult Jesus by way of John the Baptist, who baptizes him.

"And when Jesus had been baptized he at once came up from the water, and suddenly the heavens opened and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and coming down on him. And suddenly there was a voice from heaven, 'This is my Son, the Beloved; my favor rests on him." (Matthew 3: 16-17; cf. Mark 1: 10 ff, Luke 3: 21 ff, John 1:32).

The Temptation. After Jesus' baptism, he fasts in the wilderness, where he is tempted (unsuccessfully) by the devil. (Matthew 4, Mark 1:12-13, Luke 4).

Calling of Disciples Jesus summons his first disciples (Matthew 4:18-22, Mark 1:16-20, Luke 5:1-11) and later--with a full complement of twelve--sends them out to preach (Matthew 10; Mark 6:7-13; Luke 6:12-16, also 9:1-6). Many scholars believe the twelve disciples thus appointed to represent the Twelve Tribes of Israel. (Jesus had many more followers than twelve.) The lists of names subtly differ from gospel to gospel.

Sermons. Matthew chapters 5 - 7 gives us the Sermon on the Mount, in which Jesus calls on his followers to turn the other cheek (5:39), "love your enemies" (5:44), and practice the Golden Rule (7:12). Other highlights include the Beatitudes (5:3-11) and the Lord's Prayer (6:9-13). Similar material is found in Luke, but scattered throughout the text rather than concentrated, as in Matthew.

Parables. A "parable" is a short narrative illustrating a spiritual point--often puzzling, or involving a surprising twist--and the classic examples are those of Jesus. The synoptics agree that Jesus told "parables" (the concept is introduced somewhat in Matthew 13, Mark 4, and Luke 8) and give many examples. Here is just one:

"The kingdom of Heaven is like the yeast a woman took and mixed in with three measures of flour till it was leavened all through." (Matthew 13:33).

Miracle stories. All four gospels affirm that Jesus performed miracles. A traditional typology would distinguish between

  • healings (e.g. of the "man born blind" in John 9);
  • exorcisms (e.g., of the Gerasene demoniac in Matthew 8:28-34, Mark 5:1-20, and Luke 8:26-39);
  • "nature miracles" (e.g. walking on water in Matthew 14:22-33, Mark 6: 45-52, and John 6:16-21); and
  • resurrections (e.g. of Lazarus in John 11).

The Transfiguration. The synoptics (Matthew 17:1-6, Mark 9:1-8, Luke 9:28-36) say that, when Jesus took his disciples Peter, John, and James the son of Zebadee to the top of a mountain, Jesus began to shine with light. His disciples also saw him converse with Moses and Elijah, and heard a voice from the clouds.

Apocalypse. The synoptics (Matthew 24, 25; Mark 13, Luke 12) describe Jesus as expecting a time of "sorrows" which will culminate in the Last Judgement. Many false Christs will appear, and the "abomination of desolation" will be set up in Jerusalem. Many scholars connect these passages with the siege of Jerusalem and the destruction of its temple AD 70. Jesus refers to "the Son of Man" (possibly meaning himself); this is an allusion to the seventh chapter of Daniel, the classic text of Jewish apocalypticism.

Jesus' revelation as the Messiah. The synoptics (Matthew 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 9:18-21) have Jesus ask his disciples about their understanding of his role. When Peter calls him the Messiah, Jesus orders the disciples not to tell anyone. Matthew has John the Baptist send messengers to ask Jesus whether he is the Messiah--he tells them to inform John that "the blind see again, and the lame walk" (Matthew 11:5). John has Jesus reveal himself as the Messiah in many situations, notably to a Samaritan woman whom he meets at a well (John 4).

Disputes with Pharisees and Sadducees. The synoptics (Matthew 16:1-12, 21:23 ff, 22, 23; Mark 8:11-21, 11:27-end, 12; Luke 11: 37-53) portray Jesus as angrily debating representatives of two of the major religious factions, the Pharisees and Sadducees (or "scribes"). A major theme is the degree of severity required by Jewish law--Jesus accuses his opponents of over-exactitude and hypocrisy. Their conflict will play a great role in Jesus' later execution. John (8:1-11) gives the story of the "woman caught in adultery," in which the Pharisees and Sadduccees ask Jesus for his legal opinion (the biblically-mandated sentence being death by stoning). His celebrated words: "Let he who is without sin cast the first stone."

Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem. All four gospels (Matthew 21, Mark 11, Luke 19:28 ff, John 12:12 ff) agree that Jesus was welcomed into Jerusalem by crowds shouting messianic slogans--an event commemorated as Palm Sunday.

The Last Supper / Betrayal by Judas. All four gospels (Matthew 26, Mark 14, Luke 22, John 13 and 18) have Judas leave the company in order to betray Jesus to the temple authorities. The synoptics describe the Last Supper (a Passover seder), in which Jesus shares bread and wine with his disciples, saying the words that are repeated with every celebration of the eucharist: "This is my body which is given for you; do this in remembrance of me. This cup is the new covenant in my blood poured out for you." (Luke 22:19-20, cf. I Corinthians 11:23 ff).

The Farewell Discourses. Instead of the Last Supper, John (chapters 13-17) describes a final intimate talk which is considered a highlight of Christian mystical expression. After washing the disciples' feet as an example of service and humility, Jesus gives them "a new commandment"--to "love one another, as I have loved you." (15:12, cf. 13:34). Later sections describe Jesus' relationship with "the Father", and promise the coming of the Paraclete (Holy Spirit).

Arrest According to the synoptics, Jesus spends the night before his death on the Mount of Olives (outside Jerusalem), in prayer (Matthew 26:36 ff, Mark 14:32 ff, Luke 22:39 ff). All four gospels describe Judas as leading temple police to Jesus, who he identifies by kissing him (Matthew 26:47 ff, Mark 14:43 ff, Luke 22:47 ff, John 18).

Trial The gospels describe three distinct trials, all during the same night. The first, before a council of Jewish religious authorities (the Sanhedrin), examines whether Jesus has claimed to be the Messiah and/or the "Son of God." The second, before Pilate, focuses on the issue of whether he claimed to be the "King of the Jews." To all such questions Jesus responds in the affirmative, though John (18:36) has him explain to Pilate that "my kingdom is not of this world." Luke adds a third trial before Herod Antipas, to whom Pilate has sent Jesus to be tried for jurisdictional reasons. (Herod sends him back.) In the end, Pilate--his hand apparently forced by the Jewish community--reluctantly finds Jesus guilty and sentences him to death.

The Passion. All four gospels agree that Jesus was executed by crucifixion, and recount various "Stations of the Cross" that represent successive stages of his agony. The words spoken by Jesus from the cross differ from gospel to gospel. The synoptics agree that Jesus' death was on a Friday which was also the Passover; John says that the day was actually the Day of Preparation (the day before).

Resurrection In all four gospels (Matthew 28, Mark 16 Luke 4, John 20), Mary Magdalene and other female followers of Jesus visit his tomb, and discover that he is in fact alive. (A shorter ending of Mark ends with the discovery of the empty tomb.) Jesus appears to the other disciples later and gives them the "Great Commission" (to take his message to the world). The Gospel of John adds touching farewells to disciples Thomas and Peter.

Ascension. Luke (24:50, cf. Mark 16:19) reports that the disciples watched Jesus ascend into heaven. The Book of Acts (1:19-11) adds that Jesus, in the words of an angel, "will come back in the same way as you have seen him go to heaven." This alludes to the Christian belief in the Second Coming of Christ.

The historical Jesus

For more information, see: Historical Jesus.

Since the Enlightenment, scholars have tried to distinguish Jesus as a historical figure from the figure worshiped by Christianity, although Albert Schweitzer commented that scholars who set out on a "Quest for the Historical Jesus" tend to discover in him a reflection of their own views. Some naturalist scholars focused doubt on the biblical accounts of miracles. Others saw Jesus as a moral teacher whose views are best represented by the Sermon on the Mount. In recent decades, the name "Jesus Studies" has come to describe historical (as opposed to theological) approaches to the study of Jesus. In 1985, the Westar Institute started a project named the Jesus Seminar which inquired into the "voice of Jesus" - two hundred scholars discussed and voted on which stories and statements about Jesus they thought were historically valid. Many of the scholars involved with the Seminar have gone on to develop theories about Jesus, some of which are described below.

A central problem is that the most important sources about Jesus--the canonical gospels--are not accepted as reliable by all scholars due to a number of factors: (1) disagreement in regards to date of authorship, (2) the writers' neutrality is disputed because they were followers of Jesus, and (3) certain details in the gospels are believed to conflict with one another, with external history, or with secular understandings and presuppositions regarding the physical world. As a result, historians must decide whether to

(a) select which information they regard as most probable;
(b) attempt to harmonize seeming discrepancies; or
(c) doubt everything.

Following this last principle, a few scholars (G. A. Wells, Earl Doherty, John Allegro and Robert M. Price) go so far as to doubt the existence of Jesus as a historical figure, often citing the idea of the Mythic Hero and pointing to similarities with the myths of earlier religious saviors[2]. This view has not received widespread support for several reasons, including attestation to Jesus' existence in disparate sources, and the inclusion in the gospel accounts of events potentially embarrassing to early Christians that were unlikely to have been invented. Examples of such embarrassing events include Jesus' execution as a criminal (a detail not found in traditional Jewish messianic lore), and his baptism by John the Baptist (suggesting that Jesus had sins to be forgiven, and an inferior role to John).

Recent scholarly interpretations of Jesus that do not necessarily agree with historical Christian beliefs variously portray him as:

Many other theories have been proposed, but have received less scholarly support.

Jesus in Christianity

For more information, see: Jesus in Christianity.

Christianity encompasses groups and individuals whose Christologies (views on Jesus) are extremely diverse. Nevertheless, certain "mainstream" beliefs can be identified, which would win broad support among the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches (i.e. the overwhelming majority of Christians). These beliefs may be traced partly to the New Testament, and partly to church tradition. Especially influential were the ecumenical councils which established creeds such as the Nicene (or Niceno-Constantinopolitan) Creed.

Christians generally affirm that Jesus was the Messiah whose coming was predicted by the prophets of the Old Testament; and would approve of Peter's words (in Matthew 16:16), "You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God." Perhaps confusingly, Christian tradition hails Jesus not only as the Son of God, but also in some sense as God himself, incarnated as a man. The theology that arose to describe this uses the language of the Incarnation (Jesus being fully human, yet fully divine), and of the Trinity (Jesus being its Second Person, the Son or Logos, who is "eternally begotten of the Father").

The Jesus of Christianity is at once historical and trans-historical. The Nicene Creed expresses the belief that he existed before the creation of the world, and will reign eternally after its end (the subject of eschatology). Moreover, many affirm his dwelling within the hearts of all Christian believers, perhaps all souls, who receive spiritual life from him as grapes do from the vine (John 15:1 ff). The "body of Christ" is identified with the community of believers--the church--as well as with the communion bread. For some churches such as Orthodox and Catholics, Christ is actually present in the Eucharist (Transubstantiation), whereby he unites with his worshipers.

Of the various miracles that the gospels attribute to Jesus, or describe as occurring in his proximity, most amount to signs of his divinity. However, two carry special doctrinal significance: Mary's virginal conception of Jesus (not to be confused with the immaculate conception, or the virgin birth), and Jesus' resurrection from the dead. The first is associated with the Incarnation; the second, with Christ's role as Savior.

For Christians, Jesus' crucifixion was the defining moment in the history of the world, a kind of "axis mundi". It is remembered not as a tragedy, but as a triumph--and not simply because Jesus escaped as a result of his resurrection and subsequent ascension. Various Christian theologies attempt to explain how Christ's sacrifice has brought salvation into the world; this is the field of soteriology.

  • Several theories emphasize the legal helplessness of sinful humanity before God as unwavering judge (the "appeasement" or "commercial" theory), or Satan as debtor (the "ransom" theory), with sinless Christ as the only acceptable payment.
  • The Christus Victor theory conceives of Christ's life and death as revelations of God's love, whereby Christ descended to earth for us and (in the words of the liturgy of Saint Basil) "conquered death by death, and became the firstborn of the dead."
  • Another (Pauline) image is that of Christ as the "last Adam," whose sinless perfection atones (justifying man and making him righteous in the sight of God) for Adam's sin: "For as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ" (I Corinthians 15:22, cf. Romans 5:12 ff.) Orthodox and Catholic tradition similarly juxtaposes Eve with the Virgin Mary (though the station of Mary is by no means comparable to that of Christ).

Jesus in Islam

For more information, see: Jesus in Islam.

The Qur'an repeatedly names Jesus (Arabic Isa) as one of the prophets of Islam. (The terms nabi and rasul are both used.) A hadith (tradition) of Burkhari (4.55.651) adds that he was the last prophet to appear before Muhammad.

Christian beliefs affirmed by the Qur'an include

  • the virginal conception by Mary (3:47, 21:91)
  • Jesus' miracles, such as healing the blind or leprous, or bringing a clay bird to life (3:49, cf. the Protevangelion Jacobi for this last)
  • his mixed reception, with some disbelieving (2:253)
  • his status as the Messiah (as-Masih), who "confirmed the Torah that had come before him" (61:6), and predicted the future appearance of "Ahmad" (i.e. Muhammad, 61:6)
  • the title "Word of God" (Kamilat Allah, 3:45)
  • his Second Coming--"there is none of the People of the Book but must believe in him before his death; and on the Day of Judgment he will be a witness against them..." (4:159). In that connection, a number of hadith describe a final contest between Jesus (perhaps accompanied by the Mahdi) and Dajjal, the Antichrist.

Christian beliefs rejected by the Qur'an include:

  • the Incarnation: "They do blaspheme who say "Allah is Christ the son of Mary..." (5:72). "Christ the son of Mary was no more than a messenger; many were the messengers that passed away before him." (5:75)
  • the Trinity: "They do blaspheme who say: God is one of three in a Trinity: for there is no god except One Allah." (5:73) However, 5:116 suggests that the "Trinity" being condemned here is one consisting of God, Jesus and Mary.
  • The crucifixion: "...they said (in boast), "We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah";- but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not: Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise... (4:157-158) Interestingly, the proposal that another person was crucified in Jesus' stead is anticipated in a text from Nag Hammadi, The Second Treatise of the Great Seth (56: 6-19).

Muslims believe that Jesus revealed a holy book called the Injil ("Evangel"), but do not identify this with any part of the New Testament as it exists today.

In addition to the Qur'an, a number of hadiths and other traditional sayings quote Jesus. For example he is made to observe that "The world is a bridge, so pass over it and do not inhabit it" (from a Fatehpur Sikri inscription commissioned by Akbar). This raises the fascinating question of how early Muslims were exposed to traditions about Jesus, and whether these might have included authentic strands no longer extant anywhere else.

(Qur'an translations by Yusuf Ali)

Jesus in Western culture

Because of the historic impact of Christianity on the western world the figure of Jesus appears prominently in western cultures. He is a perennial subject of art and discussion both in and out of the church. Much of his influence is particularly tied to the religion of Christianity that claims Jesus as its central figure and the influence various church and para-church organizations wield within society. The impact of the Biblical Jesus of western life and culture is no better illustrated than by the use of the Gregorian Calendar. Additionally, the widespread celebration surrounding the holidays of Easter and Christmas are further testimonies to the effects of Jesus on western culture.

Although religion, Christianity in particular, is seen to be receding in many western socieities the impact of the man Jesus and the religion that claims him as its key figure are easily seen and attested to throughout the western world.

Jewish views of Jesus

For more information, see: Jewish views of Jesus.


Humanist views of Jesus

Many humanists and non-theists have an admiration for Jesus as a moral example and sometimes as a spiritual teacher, although there are obviously different meanings in the word. Most humanists believe that Jesus probably did exist, although some follow mythicist scholars in thinking that the stories of Jesus are myths. Some humanists tend to admire the direction of Jesus' anti-authoritarian, anti-absolutist morality, and the challenge they present to the ethics of the Old Testament[3].

Thomas Jefferson, one of the Founding Fathers that many consider to have been a deist, created a "Jefferson Bible" for the Indians entitled "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth" that included only Jesus' ethical teachings. Similarly, Thomas Paine wrote of the Bible in his controversial book The Age of Reason.

Mandaean views of Jesus

Mandaeanism regards Jesus as a deceiving prophet (mšiha kdaba) of the false Jewish god Adunay, and an opponent of the good prophet John the Baptist, although they do believe that John baptized Jesus.

New Age views of Jesus

For more information, see: Neoapocrypha.

The New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus, with some representatives (such as A Course in Miracles) going so far as to trance-channel him. Many recognize him as a "great teacher" (or "Ascended Master") similar to Buddha, and teach that Christhood is something that all may attain. At the same time, many New Age teachings, such as reincarnation, appear to reflect a discomfort with traditional Christianity. Many New Age subgroups claim Jesus as a supporter, often incorporating contrasts with or protests against the Christian mainstream. Thus, for example, Theosophy and its offshoots have Jesus studying esotericism in the Himalayas or Egypt during his "lost years."

References

  1. ↑ John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205-7
  2. ↑ As an example of this genre, Robert M. Price's essay Christ a Fiction (1997) Internet Infidels library.
  3. ↑ British Humanist Association, A humanist discussion of... Jesus (2006)
Retrieved from "https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Jesus&oldid=977002"