Anticoagulant: Difference between revisions
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'''Anticoagulants''' are "agents that prevent [[coagulation|blood clotting]]".<ref name="title">{{MeSH|Anticoagulants}}</ref> They may be used to prevent [[embolism and thrombosis]]. | '''Anticoagulants''' are "agents that prevent [[coagulation|blood clotting]]".<ref name="title">{{MeSH|Anticoagulants}}</ref> They interfere with [[coagulation]] and may be used to prevent [[embolism and thrombosis]]. | ||
Anticoagulation is dangerous due to drug toxicity and should be managed in a systematic manner.<ref name="pmid16685005">{{cite journal| author=van Walraven C, Jennings A, Oake N, Fergusson D, Forster AJ| title=Effect of study setting on anticoagulation control: a systematic review and metaregression. | journal=Chest | year= 2006 | volume= 129 | issue= 5 | pages= 1155-66 | pmid=16685005 | doi=10.1378/chest.129.5.1155 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16685005 }} </ref> | Anticoagulation is dangerous due to drug toxicity and should be managed in a systematic manner.<ref name="pmid16685005">{{cite journal| author=van Walraven C, Jennings A, Oake N, Fergusson D, Forster AJ| title=Effect of study setting on anticoagulation control: a systematic review and metaregression. | journal=Chest | year= 2006 | volume= 129 | issue= 5 | pages= 1155-66 | pmid=16685005 | doi=10.1378/chest.129.5.1155 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16685005 }} </ref> | ||
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[[Warfarin]] is a commonly used oral anticoagulant that interferes with the Vitamin K dependent coagulation co-factors. | [[Warfarin]] is a commonly used oral anticoagulant that interferes with the Vitamin K dependent coagulation co-factors. | ||
==Heparins== | ==Indirect thrombin inhibitors== | ||
===Unfractionated heparin=== | ===Heparins=== | ||
Heparins bind to and activate the enzyme inhibitor [[antithrombin III]]. The activated [[antithrombin III]] then inactivates thrombin, factor Xa, and components of coagulation. | |||
====Unfractionated heparin==== | |||
Details of the usage of heparin are available in [[clinical practice guideline]]s by the [[American College of Chest Physicians]]<ref name="pmid15383472">{{cite journal |author=Hirsh J, Raschke R |title=Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy |journal=Chest |volume=126 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=188S-203S |year=2004 |pmid=15383472 |doi=10.1378/chest.126.3_suppl.188S|url=http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/126/3_suppl/204S}}</ref>: | Details of the usage of heparin are available in [[clinical practice guideline]]s by the [[American College of Chest Physicians]]<ref name="pmid15383472">{{cite journal |author=Hirsh J, Raschke R |title=Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy |journal=Chest |volume=126 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=188S-203S |year=2004 |pmid=15383472 |doi=10.1378/chest.126.3_suppl.188S|url=http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/126/3_suppl/204S}}</ref>: | ||
* [http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/126/3_suppl/188S/T4 Non-weight based heparin dose adjustment] | * [http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/full/126/3_suppl/188S/T4 Non-weight based heparin dose adjustment] | ||
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is related to heparin levels. The goal heparin level is 0.3 to 0.7 U/mL for unfractionated heparin but a higher level for low molecular weight heparin.<ref name="pmid15222660">{{cite journal |author=Rosborough TK, Shepherd MF |title=Achieving target antifactor Xa activity with a heparin protocol based on sex, age, height, and weight |journal=Pharmacotherapy |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=713–9 |year=2004 |month=June |pmid=15222660 |doi=10.1592/phco.24.8.713.36067 |url=http://www.atypon-link.com/doi/abs/10.1592/phco.24.8.713.36067 |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10391423">{{cite journal |author=Rosborough TK |title=Monitoring unfractionated heparin therapy with antifactor Xa activity results in fewer monitoring tests and dosage changes than monitoring with the activated partial thromboplastin time |journal=Pharmacotherapy |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=760–6 |year=1999 |month=June |pmid=10391423 |doi= |url= |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8267489">{{cite journal |author=Levine MN, Hirsh J, Gent M, ''et al.'' |title=A randomized trial comparing activated thromboplastin time with heparin assay in patients with acute venous thromboembolism requiring large daily doses of heparin |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=154 |issue=1 |pages=49–56 |year=1994 |month=January |pmid=8267489 |doi= |url=http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8267489 |issn=}}</ref> | is related to heparin levels. The goal heparin level is 0.3 to 0.7 U/mL for unfractionated heparin but a higher level for low molecular weight heparin.<ref name="pmid15222660">{{cite journal |author=Rosborough TK, Shepherd MF |title=Achieving target antifactor Xa activity with a heparin protocol based on sex, age, height, and weight |journal=Pharmacotherapy |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=713–9 |year=2004 |month=June |pmid=15222660 |doi=10.1592/phco.24.8.713.36067 |url=http://www.atypon-link.com/doi/abs/10.1592/phco.24.8.713.36067 |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid10391423">{{cite journal |author=Rosborough TK |title=Monitoring unfractionated heparin therapy with antifactor Xa activity results in fewer monitoring tests and dosage changes than monitoring with the activated partial thromboplastin time |journal=Pharmacotherapy |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=760–6 |year=1999 |month=June |pmid=10391423 |doi= |url= |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8267489">{{cite journal |author=Levine MN, Hirsh J, Gent M, ''et al.'' |title=A randomized trial comparing activated thromboplastin time with heparin assay in patients with acute venous thromboembolism requiring large daily doses of heparin |journal=Arch. Intern. Med. |volume=154 |issue=1 |pages=49–56 |year=1994 |month=January |pmid=8267489 |doi= |url=http://archinte.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=8267489 |issn=}}</ref> | ||
===Low molecular weight heparin=== | ====Low molecular weight heparin==== | ||
{{main|Low molecular weight heparin}} | {{main|Low molecular weight heparin}} | ||
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The last dose of low molecular weight heparin prior to [[coronary artery bypass]] surgery should occur 24 hours before the procedure in order to prevent high residual anti-Xa levels.<ref name="pmid17588394">{{cite journal |author=Whitlock RP, Crowther MA, Warkentin TE, Blackall MH, Farrokhyar F, Teoh KH |title=Warfarin cessation before cardiopulmonary bypass: lessons learned from a randomized controlled trial of oral vitamin K |journal=Ann. Thorac. Surg. |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=103–8 |year=2007 |pmid=17588394 |doi=10.1016/j.athoracsur.2007.03.014}}</ref> | The last dose of low molecular weight heparin prior to [[coronary artery bypass]] surgery should occur 24 hours before the procedure in order to prevent high residual anti-Xa levels.<ref name="pmid17588394">{{cite journal |author=Whitlock RP, Crowther MA, Warkentin TE, Blackall MH, Farrokhyar F, Teoh KH |title=Warfarin cessation before cardiopulmonary bypass: lessons learned from a randomized controlled trial of oral vitamin K |journal=Ann. Thorac. Surg. |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=103–8 |year=2007 |pmid=17588394 |doi=10.1016/j.athoracsur.2007.03.014}}</ref> | ||
==Direct thrombin inhibitors== | ==Direct thrombin inhibitors (antithrombins)== | ||
Direct thrombin inhibitors bind directly to thrombin<ref name="pmid16148288">{{cite journal |author=Di Nisio M, Middeldorp S, Büller HR |title=Direct thrombin inhibitors |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=353 |issue=10 |pages=1028–40 |year=2005 |pmid=16148288 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra044440|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/10/1028}}</ref> and are used for [[heparin-induced thrombocytopenia]] and during [[percutaneous coronary intervention]]s.<ref name="pmid18956996">{{cite journal| author=Baetz BE, Spinler SA| title=Dabigatran etexilate: an oral direct thrombin inhibitor for prophylaxis and treatment of thromboembolic diseases. | journal=Pharmacotherapy | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 11 | pages= 1354-73 | pmid=18956996 | Direct thrombin inhibitors ([[antithrombin]]s) bind directly to thrombin<ref name="pmid16148288">{{cite journal |author=Di Nisio M, Middeldorp S, Büller HR |title=Direct thrombin inhibitors |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=353 |issue=10 |pages=1028–40 |year=2005 |pmid=16148288 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra044440|url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/10/1028}}</ref> and are used for [[heparin-induced thrombocytopenia]] and during [[percutaneous coronary intervention]]s.<ref name="pmid18956996">{{cite journal| author=Baetz BE, Spinler SA| title=Dabigatran etexilate: an oral direct thrombin inhibitor for prophylaxis and treatment of thromboembolic diseases. | journal=Pharmacotherapy | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 11 | pages= 1354-73 | pmid=18956996 | ||
| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&email=badgett@uthscdsa.edu&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18956996 | doi=10.1592/phco.28.11.1354 }}</ref> | | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&email=badgett@uthscdsa.edu&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18956996 | doi=10.1592/phco.28.11.1354 }}</ref> | ||
* [[Argatroban]] is for treating [[heparin-induced thrombocytopenia]] (HIT) | * [[Argatroban]] is for treating [[heparin-induced thrombocytopenia]] (HIT) | ||
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==Adverse effects== | ==Adverse effects== | ||
===Risk factors=== | |||
Various risk factors, such as history of [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], prior [[gastrointestinal hemorrhage]] and [[anemia]], have been identified.<ref name="pmid24315894">{{cite journal| author=Goodman SG, Wojdyla DM, Piccini JP, White HD, Paolini JF, Nessel CC et al.| title=Factors associated with major bleeding events: insights from the ROCKET AF trial (rivaroxaban once-daily oral direct factor Xa inhibition compared with vitamin K antagonism for prevention of stroke and embolism trial in atrial fibrillation). | journal=J Am Coll Cardiol | year= 2014 | volume= 63 | issue= 9 | pages= 891-900 | pmid=24315894 | doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2013.11.013 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24315894 }} </ref> | |||
Bleeding is more likely when more than one antithrombotic is used.<ref name="pmid10386508">{{cite journal| author=Gulløv AL, Koefoed BG, Petersen P| title=Bleeding during warfarin and aspirin therapy in patients with atrial fibrillation: the AFASAK 2 study. Atrial Fibrillation Aspirin and Anticoagulation. | journal=Arch Intern Med | year= 1999 | volume= 159 | issue= 12 | pages= 1322-8 | pmid=10386508 }} </ref><ref name="pmid20006130">{{cite journal| author=Sørensen R, Hansen ML, Abildstrom SZ, Hvelplund A, Andersson C, Jørgensen C et al.| title=Risk of bleeding in patients with acute myocardial infarction treated with different combinations of aspirin, clopidogrel, and vitamin K antagonists in Denmark: a retrospective analysis of nationwide registry data. | journal=Lancet | year= 2009 | volume= 374 | issue= 9706 | pages= 1967-74 | pmid=20006130 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&email=badgett@uthscdsa.edu&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20006130 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61751-7 }}</ref> | |||
[[Accidental fall]]s may not increase rate of major bleeding.<ref name="pmid22840664">{{cite journal| author=Donzé J, Clair C, Hug B, Rodondi N, Waeber G, Cornuz J et al.| title=Risk of falls and major bleeds in patients on oral anticoagulation therapy. | journal=Am J Med | year= 2012 | volume= 125 | issue= 8 | pages= 773-8 | pmid=22840664 | doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.01.033 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22840664 }} </ref> | |||
===Prediction=== | |||
In [[atrial fibrillation]], the risk of bleeding can be estimated with the HAS-BLED clinical prediction rule.<ref name="pmid20299623">{{cite journal| author=Pisters R, Lane DA, Nieuwlaat R, de Vos CB, Crijns HJ, Lip GY| title=A novel user-friendly score (HAS-BLED) to assess 1-year risk of major bleeding in patients with atrial fibrillation: the Euro Heart Survey. | journal=Chest | year= 2010 | volume= 138 | issue= 5 | pages= 1093-100 | pmid=20299623 | doi=10.1378/chest.10-0134 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20299623 }} </ref> | |||
In acute [[acute coronary syndrome]], the risk of bleeding with [[heparin]] can be estimated with a [[clinical prediction rule]] (http://www.crusadebleedingscore.org/). Additional [[clinical prediction rule]]s are available.<ref name="pmid17099015">{{cite journal| author=Shireman TI, Mahnken JD, Howard PA, Kresowik TF, Hou Q, Ellerbeck EF| title=Development of a contemporary bleeding risk model for elderly warfarin recipients. | journal=Chest | year= 2006 | volume= 130 | issue= 5 | pages= 1390-6 | pmid=17099015 | doi=10.1378/chest.130.5.1390 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17099015 }} [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17335175 Review in: ACP J Club. 2007 Mar-Apr;146(2):52] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17400649 Review in: Evid Based Med. 2007 Apr;12(2):57] </ref> | |||
| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool= | |||
===Prevention=== | |||
[[Proton pump inhibitor]]s may reduce the risk of [[gastrointestinal hemorrhage]] among patients undergoing anticoagulation.<ref name="pmid18616644">{{cite journal| author=Massó González EL, García Rodríguez LA| title=Proton pump inhibitors reduce the long-term risk of recurrent upper gastrointestinal bleeding: an observational study. | journal=Aliment Pharmacol Ther | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 5 | pages= 629-37 | pmid=18616644 | [[Proton pump inhibitor]]s may reduce the risk of [[gastrointestinal hemorrhage]] among patients undergoing anticoagulation.<ref name="pmid18616644">{{cite journal| author=Massó González EL, García Rodríguez LA| title=Proton pump inhibitors reduce the long-term risk of recurrent upper gastrointestinal bleeding: an observational study. | journal=Aliment Pharmacol Ther | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 5 | pages= 629-37 | pmid=18616644 | ||
| url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&email=badgett@uthscdsa.edu&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18616644 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2036.2008.03780.x }}</ref> | | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&email=badgett@uthscdsa.edu&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18616644 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2036.2008.03780.x }}</ref> | ||
=== | ===Treatment=== | ||
"Prothrombin complex concentrate immediately and completely reverses the anticoagulant effect of rivaroxaban in healthy subjects but has no influence on the anticoagulant action of dabigatran at the PCC dose used in this study" according to a [[randomized controlled trial]]. <ref name="pmid21900088">{{cite journal| author=Eerenberg ES, Kamphuisen PW, Sijpkens MK, Meijers JC, Buller HR, Levi M| title=Reversal of rivaroxaban and dabigatran by prothrombin complex concentrate: a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study in healthy subjects. | journal=Circulation | year= 2011 | volume= 124 | issue= 14 | pages= 1573-9 | pmid=21900088 | doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.029017 | pmc= | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21900088 }} </ref> | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
| Line 81: | Line 91: | ||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
* [http:// | * [http://journal.publications.chestnet.org/issue.aspx?journalid=99&issueid=23443 The Ninth ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy: Evidence-Based Guidelines] 2012 | ||
* [http://www.chestjournal.org/content/vol133/6_suppl/ The Eighth ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy: Evidence-Based Guidelines] | * [http://www.chestjournal.org/content/vol133/6_suppl/ The Eighth ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy: Evidence-Based Guidelines][[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]] | ||
Latest revision as of 11:00, 11 July 2024
Anticoagulants are "agents that prevent blood clotting".[1] They interfere with coagulation and may be used to prevent embolism and thrombosis.
Anticoagulation is dangerous due to drug toxicity and should be managed in a systematic manner.[2]
Vitamin K antagonists
Warfarin
Warfarin is a commonly used oral anticoagulant that interferes with the Vitamin K dependent coagulation co-factors.
Indirect thrombin inhibitors
Heparins
Heparins bind to and activate the enzyme inhibitor antithrombin III. The activated antithrombin III then inactivates thrombin, factor Xa, and components of coagulation.
Unfractionated heparin
Details of the usage of heparin are available in clinical practice guidelines by the American College of Chest Physicians[3]:
Heparin dose may also be adjusted by using an anti-Xa assay to measure heparin function, which is related to heparin levels. The goal heparin level is 0.3 to 0.7 U/mL for unfractionated heparin but a higher level for low molecular weight heparin.[4][5][6]
Low molecular weight heparin
| Prophylaxis dose | Full dose | Comments | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Enoxiparin (Lovenox) |
Either: 30 mg twice daily 40 mg once daily |
Either: 1 mg/kg/dose every 12 hours 1.5 mg/kg once daily more information is at Enoxaparin |
|
| Dalteparin (Framin) |
After loading, 2500 to 5000 int. units daily | 150 int. units/kg up to 18,000 int. units) once daily dosing is complicated and more information is at DailyMed |
If creatinine clearance is less then 30 mL/minute, monitor anti-Xa levels |
The last dose of low molecular weight heparin prior to coronary artery bypass surgery should occur 24 hours before the procedure in order to prevent high residual anti-Xa levels.[7]
Direct thrombin inhibitors (antithrombins)
Direct thrombin inhibitors (antithrombins) bind directly to thrombin[8] and are used for heparin-induced thrombocytopenia and during percutaneous coronary interventions.[9]
- Argatroban is for treating heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT)
- Bivalirudin is a recombinant protein
- Dabigatran is given orally and may be as effective as warfarin and with less bleeding but increased dyspepsia for the treatment of embolism and thrombosis.[10] However, dabigatran my increase acute coronary syndrome.[11]
- Desirudin
- Hirudin is a recombinant protein for treating heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT)
- Lepirudin
- Ximelagatran is a recombinant protein that is an oral direct thrombin inhibitor
Low molecular weight heparins may provide better anticoagulation for prophylaxis of deep venous thrombosis among orthopedic patients than direct thrombin inhibitors because the latter may increase bleeding complications.[12] However, if anticoagulation is started before surgery, direct thrombin inhibitors may be more effective.
Factor Xa inhibitors
- Apixaban is taken orally and can prevent can prevent embolism and thrombosis during perioperative care according to randomized controlled trials of knee[13] and hip[14] surgery. May also reduce embolism better than warfarin in atrial fibrillation. Hepatic metabolism.
- Fondaparinux can prevent embolism and thrombosis during perioperative care according to randomized controlled trials of hip fracture surgery[15].
- Idraparinux is a synthetic derivative of heparin that has a long half life that allows once-weekly dosage. A randomized controlled trial compared idraparinux to warfarin and found that idraparinux is equivalent for deep venous thrombosis but is inferior for pulmonary embolism.[16]
- Idrabiotaparinux is idraparinux with biotin added to allow rapid reversal of anticoagulation with avidin. Idrabiotaparinux may be more effective than warfarin for pulmonary embolism.[17]
- Rivaroxaban can be given orally. It can prevent embolism and thrombosis during perioperative care according to randomized controlled trials of two weeks of therapy after knee arthoplasty[18] or 5 weeks of therapy after hip arthroplasty.[19][20]
Warfarin combined with heparin
Warfarin combined with heparin did not benefit survivors of acute myocardial infarction in a randomized controlled trial.[21]
Warfarin combined with heparin reduced events, but increased bleeding, among survivors of acute myocardial infarction in a randomized controlled trial.[22]
Adverse effects
Risk factors
Various risk factors, such as history of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, prior gastrointestinal hemorrhage and anemia, have been identified.[23]
Bleeding is more likely when more than one antithrombotic is used.[24][25]
Accidental falls may not increase rate of major bleeding.[26]
Prediction
In atrial fibrillation, the risk of bleeding can be estimated with the HAS-BLED clinical prediction rule.[27]
In acute acute coronary syndrome, the risk of bleeding with heparin can be estimated with a clinical prediction rule (http://www.crusadebleedingscore.org/). Additional clinical prediction rules are available.[28]
Prevention
Proton pump inhibitors may reduce the risk of gastrointestinal hemorrhage among patients undergoing anticoagulation.[29]
Treatment
"Prothrombin complex concentrate immediately and completely reverses the anticoagulant effect of rivaroxaban in healthy subjects but has no influence on the anticoagulant action of dabigatran at the PCC dose used in this study" according to a randomized controlled trial. [30]
References
- ↑ Anonymous (2024), Anticoagulants (English). Medical Subject Headings. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
- ↑ van Walraven C, Jennings A, Oake N, Fergusson D, Forster AJ (2006). "Effect of study setting on anticoagulation control: a systematic review and metaregression.". Chest 129 (5): 1155-66. DOI:10.1378/chest.129.5.1155. PMID 16685005. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Hirsh J, Raschke R (2004). "Heparin and low-molecular-weight heparin: the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy". Chest 126 (3 Suppl): 188S-203S. DOI:10.1378/chest.126.3_suppl.188S. PMID 15383472. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Rosborough TK, Shepherd MF (June 2004). "Achieving target antifactor Xa activity with a heparin protocol based on sex, age, height, and weight". Pharmacotherapy 24 (6): 713–9. DOI:10.1592/phco.24.8.713.36067. PMID 15222660. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Rosborough TK (June 1999). "Monitoring unfractionated heparin therapy with antifactor Xa activity results in fewer monitoring tests and dosage changes than monitoring with the activated partial thromboplastin time". Pharmacotherapy 19 (6): 760–6. PMID 10391423. [e]
- ↑ Levine MN, Hirsh J, Gent M, et al. (January 1994). "A randomized trial comparing activated thromboplastin time with heparin assay in patients with acute venous thromboembolism requiring large daily doses of heparin". Arch. Intern. Med. 154 (1): 49–56. PMID 8267489. [e]
- ↑ Whitlock RP, Crowther MA, Warkentin TE, Blackall MH, Farrokhyar F, Teoh KH (2007). "Warfarin cessation before cardiopulmonary bypass: lessons learned from a randomized controlled trial of oral vitamin K". Ann. Thorac. Surg. 84 (1): 103–8. DOI:10.1016/j.athoracsur.2007.03.014. PMID 17588394. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Di Nisio M, Middeldorp S, Büller HR (2005). "Direct thrombin inhibitors". N. Engl. J. Med. 353 (10): 1028–40. DOI:10.1056/NEJMra044440. PMID 16148288. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Baetz BE, Spinler SA (2008). "Dabigatran etexilate: an oral direct thrombin inhibitor for prophylaxis and treatment of thromboembolic diseases.". Pharmacotherapy 28 (11): 1354-73. DOI:10.1592/phco.28.11.1354. PMID 18956996. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Schulman S, Kearon C, Kakkar AK, Mismetti P, Schellong S, Eriksson H et al. (2009). "Dabigatran versus warfarin in the treatment of acute venous thromboembolism.". N Engl J Med 361 (24): 2342-52. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa0906598. PMID 19966341. Research Blogging. Review in: Ann Intern Med. 2010 Apr 20;152(8):JC4-7
- ↑ Uchino K, Hernandez AV (2012). "Dabigatran Association With Higher Risk of Acute Coronary Events: Meta-analysis of Noninferiority Randomized Controlled Trials.". Arch Intern Med. DOI:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.1666. PMID 22231617. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Salazar CA, Malaga G, Malasquez G (2010). "Direct thrombin inhibitors versus vitamin K antagonists or low molecular weight heparins for prevention of venous thromboembolism following total hip or knee replacement.". Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4: CD005981. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD005981.pub2. PMID 20393944. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Lassen MR, Raskob GE, Gallus A, Pineo G, Chen D, Portman RJ (2009). "Apixaban or enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after knee replacement.". N Engl J Med 361 (6): 594-604. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa0810773. PMID 19657123. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Lassen MR, Gallus A, Raskob GE, Pineo G, Chen D, Ramirez LM et al. (2010). "Apixaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophylaxis after hip replacement.". N Engl J Med 363 (26): 2487-98. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa1006885. PMID 21175312. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Eriksson BI, Bauer KA, Lassen MR, Turpie AG (November 2001). "Fondaparinux compared with enoxaparin for the prevention of venous thromboembolism after hip-fracture surgery". The New England journal of medicine 345 (18): 1298–304. PMID 11794148. [e]
- ↑ Buller HR, Cohen AT, Davidson B, et al (2007). "Idraparinux versus standard therapy for venous thromboembolic disease". N. Engl. J. Med. 357 (11): 1094–104. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa064247. PMID 17855670. Research Blogging.
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