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| '''Quebec''' (English version) or '''Québec''' (in French) is a province of [[Canada]] with more than 8 million people.<ref>See [http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/popdwell/Table-PR.cfm Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2001 and 1996 Censuses]</ref> | | {{subpages}} |
| | | '''Quebec''' ([[English language|English]] version) or '''Québec''' (in [[French language|French]]) is a province of [[Canada]] with more than 8 million people.<ref>See [http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/popdwell/Table-PR.cfm Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2001 and 1996 Censuses]</ref> Its capital is [[Quebec City]] and its largest city is [[Montreal, Quebec]]. The official name has been "Quebec" since Confederation in 1867. From 1534 to 1763 it was part of [[New France]]. It has also been called "Province of Quebec" (1763-91), "Lower Canada" (1791-1841), and "Canada East" in the Province of Canada (1841-67). |
| ==Name and status==
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| The official name is "Quebec" since Confederation in 1867; previous names include "New France," (to 1763), "Province of Quebec" (1763-91), "Lower Canada" (1791-1841), and "Canada East" in the Province of Canada (1841-67). The provincial government currently considers Québec to be a "distinct society" within Canada, a status that the federal government recognized in a statement by Prime Minister Stephen Harper in November 2006.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/parliament39/quebecnation-history.html Quebec Nationalism article, CBC News backgrounder]</ref> That status is reflected in many provincial policies, such as the stringent language laws that vigorously protect the use of French as the sole official language of the province. [[Québecois]] culture has also manifested itself in unique cultural, religious and legal institutions. The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s cast off Catholic traditionalism and modernized and secularized Quebec, and also set off a demand for equality within, or even independence from, Canada; in referenda, voters twice narrowly rejected seeking independence. | |
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| == History == | | == History == |
| | See [[History of Quebec]] |
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| === The first explorers === | | ==Status== |
| | | The provincial government currently considers Québec to be a "distinct society" within Canada, a status that the federal government recognized in a statement by Prime Minister Stephen Harper in November 2006.<ref>[http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/parliament39/quebecnation-history.html Quebec Nationalism article, CBC News backgrounder]</ref> That status is reflected in many provincial policies, such as the stringent language laws that vigorously protect the use of French as the sole official language of the province. [[Québecois]] culture has also manifested itself in unique cultural, religious and legal institutions. The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s cast off Catholic traditionalism and modernized and secularized Quebec, and also set off a demand for equality within, or even independence from, Canada; in referenda, voters twice narrowly rejected seeking independence. |
| The first European explorer to reach Quebec was [[Jacques Cartier]]<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34229&query=Cartier ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref>; he was commissioned by the king of [[France, history|France]] to "discover certain islands and lands where it is said that a great quantity of gold, and other precious things, are to be found." Sailing into the [[St. Lawrence River]], he planted a cross in [[Gaspé]], on the south shore. The Cross officially gave France control over what would become Nouvelle France, its North American colony. Traveling up-river, Cartier established a settlement at [[Stadacona]], near present-day [[Quebec City]]. The settlement was however abandoned in the following years, partly due to the cold winters. | |
| === French Colonial Era ===
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| In 1602, King [[Henry IV]] of France gave a monopoly of the Canadian fur trade to a Rouen business group. This charter company, the first of several that were to rule New France for the next 60 years, appointed [[Samuel de Champlain]] chief agent for its overseas adventure.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34237&query=Samuel%20AND%20de%20AND%20Champlain ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> Champlain possessed qualities that were needed for the founding of New France. Ardently religious, he was, like the king himself, a Catholic with a Protestant background. Adventurous, a skilled seaman and cartographer, Champlain was also patriotically eager to help expand French power in the new imperial age.
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| In 1608 Champlain sailed up the St. Lawrence to Cape Diamond, where he built the fur-trading fort of Quebec. From there, Champlain began to explore and map systematically the whole upper St. Lawrence region from Georgian Bay in the northwest to Lake Champlain in the south. In order to maintain friendly relations with the local Algonquin and Huron Indians, who controlled the fur-trading routes to the interior, Champlain was also forced to support them in their bloody feud with the Five Nations of the Iroquois confederacy. As a result, the Iroquois aligned with the Dutch and English to the south and became implacable and dangerous enemies of the French.
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| Trappers and woodsmen such as Etienne Bruléand Jean Nicolet<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34552&query=Jean%20AND%20Nicolet ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> pushed further into the interior. Known as coureurs-de-bois, they extended both the fur trade and French imperial claims as far as the headwaters of the Mississippi. Their success encouraged the charter companies to concentrate on the fur trade rather than build a solid agricultural base in the St. Lawrence Valley and induced many intrepid young colonists to leave the settlements and became coureurs-de-bois. Moreover, with France involved in the [[Thirty Years War]] ( 1618-1648), little encouragement or support came from overseas.
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| What settlement did occur after Champlain's death (1635) was controlled by the Jesuits (Society of Jesus). Inspired by the missionary spirit of the [[Counter-Reformation]], they sought to convert the Indians to Christianity and to keep New France Catholic. Traveling with the coureurs-de-bois, Jesuit priests established missions as far west as Georgian Bay. Under François Laval,<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=35012&query=laval ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> who was named head of the colonial Church in 1659 and Bishop of New France in 1674, Protestants were not permitted to settle in Canada. This policy strengthened a feeling of common purpose and even a nascent nationalism in New France.
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| Because of their involvement with the French fur trade, the missionaries were exposed to attacks by the Iroquois, who were allied with rival Dutch traders in the Hudson River valley. The Jesuits were particularly active among the Hurons, who were the chief suppliers of furs from the interior. In 1648 the Iroquois, seeking to wipe out the Hurons and divert the flow of northern furs to the Dutch at Fort Orange (now Albany, New York), invaded the Huron country, massacred its inhabitants, and destroyed the Jesuit mission post of Ste. Marie on Georgian Bay. Father Jean Brébeuf and several other Jesuit priests were tortured and burned at the stake, martyrs to the cause of Christianity and French Canada.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34214&query=Brébeuf ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> The Iroquois then carried their assault into the center of New France. Montreal, which had been founded in 1642 on an island near the junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers and had become the principal control center for the interior fur trade, was especially endangered. For 12 years the post was subjected to constant Iroquois harassment, and its defense to the death by men like Adam Dollard added to the list of legendary heroes<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34298&query=dollard ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref>.
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| In 1663 King [[Louis XIV]] abolished the private fur-trade monopoly. New France was made a royal province with a superior council to carry out the king's edicts. Three officers dominated the council: the governor, with responsibility for defense; the intendant, to administer justice and promote economic growth; and the bishop, who wielded great power through his control of the church. Despite chronic feuding among its leaders, conciliar government was efficient. [[Republicanism]] never flourished and Quebec developed a more authoritarian local political culture than the more democratic forms emerging in New England to the south. Lacking an elected assembly, French Canadians were far more dependent on appointed officials. | | == Politics == |
| | In 1998 Canada's Supreme Court ruled that Quebec could not unilaterally secede and form a new country, as had been attempted in 1995 However, a clear majority in a referendum would force negotiations with the central government. |
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| Under the leadership of dedicated intendants such as Jean Talon, the first to hold the office, New France began to flourish.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34663&query=Talon ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> Population grew from 2,000 in 1663 to 6,000 in 1672. In addition, nearly 1,000 members of the veteran French regiment, the Carignan-Salières, were stationed in the colony to ensure its safety. Talon's policies encouraged the growth of large families, domestic industries, and stable farming communities. The French seigneurial landholding system was instituted, but its effects were vastly modified by colonial frontier circumstances. Since wealth was scarce, differences in landed rank meant little, and feudal dues were never a serious burden on the habitants, who were legally tenant farmers. Under Bishop Laval, the Church secured huge seigneurial land grants as well as heavy endowments for the Jesuit order. Education was in the hands of the clergy. The Church insisted on the right to regulate the colony's morals, but it was unable to prevent the sale of brandy to Indians by the fur traders.
| | Lucien Bouchard served as Quebec's premier from 1996 until his resignation in 2001. He had joined the Parti Québécois in 1971 and chaired the "oui" (pro-independentist) side in the failed 1980 referendum.<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000899 article in ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000) </ref> He attempted to address high unemployment and cut the provincial deficit, particularly in the context of globalization and Quebec's developing national identity. In the areas of trade and investment, there was some success, especially as a result of the [[NAFTA|North American Free Trade Agreement]]. Secession remained at the forefront of the political agenda. The April 2003 provincial elections, which were a three-way race between the Parti Libéral du Québec (PLQ), the incumbent Parti Québécois (PQ), and the Action Démocratique du Québec (ADQ). Jean Charest,<ref> He resigned as national Conservative leader in April 1998 and became Québec Liberal (PLQ) leader in May 1998. See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0011432 article in ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000) </ref> a former federal Progressive Conservative cabinet minister, led the PLQ to win the majority of seats in the National Assembly of Quebec, with 76 seats to 45 for PQ and 4 for ADQ. The issue of municipal reform and merger/consolidation proved unpopular in many areas, hurting the PQ. The PLQ's unprecedented majority symbolizes a new phase in Quebec politics and not the death of separatism. Charest and the PLQ have been aggressive in reforming the provision of government services by privatizing in some areas.<ref> James P. Allan and Richard Vengroff, "The Changing Party System in Quebec: the 2003 Elections and Beyond." ''Québec Studies'' 2004 (37): 3-22. Issn: 0737-3759 </ref> |
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| In 1672 the Comte de Frontenac was appointed governor of the increasingly threatened colony.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34218&query=Frontenac ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> Although he was later celebrated by the American historian [[Francis Parkman]] as the Fighting Governor, Frontenac in fact antagonized many colonists by his corruption and earned the distrust of the pro-French Indian tribes by failing to keep his promises to support them against the Iroquois.<ref> David E. Griffin, "The Man for the Hour": A Defense of Francis Parkman's Frontenac," ''The New England Quarterly,'' Vol. 43, No. 4 (Dec., 1970), pp. 605-620 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0028-4866(197012)43%3A4%3C605%3A%22MFTHA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-6 in JSTOR]</ref> Recalled in 1682, Frontenac left an internally divided and poorly defended colony to his successors. However, new Iroquois attacks and the outbreak of war between England and France led to his reappointment as governor in 1689. Mixed Indian and French raiding parties were sent out from the St. Lawrence. They fell upon settlements in New England and New York, often treating their Protestant inhabitants with great savagery. The Iroquois were quickly pacified, but the enraged English colonists retaliated in force. In 1690 a fleet from Massachusetts captured Port Royal in Acadia. English attacks on Quebec and Montreal were defeated, however, and the French seized most of the Hudson's Bay Company posts. Peace was concluded with the Iroquois in 1701, but by then it was clear that the outcome of French-English conflicts in North America would depend as much on events in Europe as on the actions of the colonists.
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| In the early 18th century the British colonies experienced a population explosion, accompanied by rapid economic growth. The shortage of land and the profits to be had on the frontier made westward expansion more alluring. During the American phase of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1702-1713) the British again captured Port Royal, which had been returned to France in 1697, and attacked Quebec. By the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] in 1713, reflecting the defeat of Louis XIV in Europe, the French recognized British possession of Hudson Bay and Acadia, which was henceforth known as [[Nova Scotia]].
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| Having lost all approaches to the St. Lawrence except Ile Royale (Cape Breton Island) and Ile St. Jean (Prince Edward Island), the French strengthened their defenses and threatened Nova Scotia and the [[Newfoundland]] fisheries; the English responded by intensifying their pressure all along the frontier. Fort Oswego, on the south shore of Lake Ontario, challenged French territorial claims in that region and menaced the St. Lawrence fur trade. French forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga, south of the St. Lawrence, were designed to prevent a British invasion of New France by way of Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River. In the far northwest Pierre La Vérendrye built a string of fur trading posts in the 1730s that stretched across the prairies as far as the Saskatchewan River, challenging the Hudson's Bay Company's westward thrusts.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=35488&query=Vérendrye ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref>
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| ===British rule===
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| ===Catholic Church===
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| Before 1800 priests and the faithful inhabited a universe marked by the pervasive presence of the supernatural, which they tried to influence by means both orthodox and magical. God was considered omnipotent, the source of benedictions and punishment; but the people, and to some extent the clergy, attributed much power to magic and the Devil.<ref>Peter Moogk, ''La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada a Cultural History'' (2000), ch. 9 </ref>
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| Hardy (2007) examines the period from 1760 to 1840, showing the Catholic Church at all times exerted considerable influence in parishes and that Catholic habitants were respectful of the demands of their faith. By 1800 the Church adopted new ways to transform religious practice. It received the state's support, and after 1840 it benefited from the support of elites that emerged from the failed rebellions. From that date forward, the Church was given responsibility for the public education system. Consequently, the school became the most effective way to indoctrinate the populace, disseminate Catholic values, and transmit the Church's new directions in religious practices. The religious culture that gradually emerged from this vast acculturation offensive was a direct result of the continuation and outcome of actions undertaken by the clergy during the first half of the 19th century. The new religious culture was defined by the respect of mandatory religious practices; the enticement of indulgences used to soften the fires of purgatory; the wealth of devotion and religious ceremonies, which now covered the entire year and dictated a rhythm to the social calendar; and the manifestation of faith through processions, pilgrimages, actions, postures, and behaviors, which were visible testimonies of faith. This behavioral model quickly became the norm during the second half of the 19th century, and any deviation from it brought the community's sharp disapproval.<ref>René Hardy, "Regards Sur La Construction De La Culture Catholique Quebecoise Au XIX Siecle," ''Canadian Historical Review'' 2007 88(1): 7-40. Issn: 0008-3755 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]] </ref>
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| Ignace Bourget, Bishop of Montreal from 1840 to 1876, played a central role in strengthening French Canadian culture once Quebec became part of the English-dominated Canadian Federation, at the same time assuring the Catholic Church a dominant position in French Canadian cultural identity.<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=39507&query=Bourget ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref> Deliberately drawing on Rome rather than France for inspiration, he presided over the expansion of the Church's activities in Quebec, seeking to make religion more accessible to the people through an emotional appeal. By helping to create a network of religious, social, and even economic institutions for the Quebecois, Bourget contributed to the emergence of a traditional culture in a modern, urban space which would define French Canadian identity until the Quiet Revolution at the end of the 1960s.<ref>Roberto Perin, "L'eglise et L'edification D'une Culture Publique au Quebec," ''Etudes D'histoire Religieuse: Société Canadienne D'histoire De L'eglise Catholique'' 2001 67: 261-270. Issn: 0318-6172 </ref>
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| ===20th century===
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| From 1867 to 1940, the Catholic Church played the primary role in Quebec in the development of both public education and family assistance, and the church actively promoted a virulent form of antistatism that opposed any government involvement in social affairs. A theological justification for antistatism explained that only the father, as head of his family, should be directly concerned with his family's welfare and with his children's education, which was controlled by the Catholic Church. Conservative politicians were content to ally themselves with the Church against any forms of liberal social interventionism. While there were some exceptions to the rule - primarily the social legislation passed by the Liberal government of Adélard Godbout during World War II - the role of the state did not really begin to change until 1945, when the national government of [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] passed family assistance legislation.<ref> Ralph Heintzman, "The Political Culture of Quebec, 1840-1960," ''Canadian Journal of Political Science'' Vol. 16, No. 1. (Mar., 1983), pp. 3-59. </ref>
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| While scholars often emphasize traditionalism, ruralism, and antistatism as the dominant factors of Quebec's political culture prior to the 1960s, some Quebecois embraced progressivism early in the 20th century. Municipal government reform, one of the hallmarks of the progressive movement, cropped up in Canada's largest city, Montreal. It was led by Anglophones and remnants of Quebec's Parti Rouges, but support for reform came from a wide section of Montreal's French-speaking population.<ref> Alan Gordon, "Ward Heelers and Honest Men: Urban Quebecois Political Culture and the Montreal Reform of 1909." ''Urban History Review'' 1995 23(2): 20-32. Issn: 0703-0428 </ref>
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| The first decades of the 20th century saw an accelerated urbanization, which made anonymity possible and facilitated an escape from social constraints for those individuals who so wished. Emigration to New England also offered a safety valve, as hundreds of thousands moved there permanently, finding work in the textile factories. This freedom from religious retribution and constraints played an important role and became a mitigating factor in the decline of the religious culture, a culture that slowly unraveled before being swept away by the Quiet Revolution.
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| ===The Quiet Revolution===
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| The Quiet Revolution (Révolution Tranquille) of the 1960s saw a radical nonviolent transformation in the politics, society and economy of Quebec. A traditional people modernized the economy and the social structure, threw off Church control, rejected Anglo control of Quebec's economy, and finally sought, but failed, to gain independence from Canada. The Revolution was strongly promoted by the governments of Liberal Premier [[Jean Lesage]] (1960-66) and Premier [[Daniel Johnson]] (1966-68) of the opposition Union Nationale party. The government nationalized hydroelectric utilities, created crown corporations, and undertook to provide the educational, health care, and social services formerly under Church control. The Quiet Revolution has resulted in the ascendency of an enormous civil service in Quebec that is directed by a middle class technocracy allied with business interests to insure control of the state.
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| ====Political upheaval====
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| Until his death in 1959 Premier [[Maurice Duplessis]]<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002468 biography at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]]</ref> ran an authoritarianism government, with and antilabor policies. He came under attack from a small but influential group of well-educated young French Canadian reformers, who took over and revived the Quebec Liberal Party.
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| In 1960 reformers defeated the Union Nationale and formed a government under Liberal [[Jean Lesage]]<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0004642 biography at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]]</ref>
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| with the slogan "Maitres chez nous" (Masters in Our Own Home). Reelected in 1962 by promising to nationalize the giant hydro-electricity industry, the Quebec Liberals initiated the so-called '''Quiet Revolution'''--a program of economic, political, and educational reforms aimed at both modernizing the province and intensifying its French characteristics. In response to their demands for greater autonomy, Ottawa conceded an "opting-out" formula whereby Quebec was not required to participate in such federal welfare programs as the Canada Pension Plan,<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0001236 article at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]]</ref>
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| but could instead receive an amount of federal money equal to that which would have been spent in the province under the Pension Plan. This "special status" for Quebec irritated many English-speaking Canadians, although it fell far short of satisfying the rapidly growing French Canadian separatist movement, which advocated complete independence for Quebec. Some separatist leaders began to resort to terrorism, and in 1963 there was a series of bombings in the English-speaking districts of Montreal.
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| Faced with a serious crisis, the national government of Prime Minister [[Lester Pearson]] appointed a royal commission to investigate the problems of bilingualism and biculturalism in Canada. The commission's report documented the economic disadvantages suffered by French Canadians and recommended full recognition of both French and English as equal official languages at the federal level and in the provinces of Quebec, New Brunswick, and Ontario. In administrative policy the Pearson government favored "cooperative federalism," meaning continuous consultation between federal and provincial departments of government, as well as fairly frequent full-scale federal-provincial conferences.
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| In 1966 the Lesage government in Quebec was defeated by the Union Nationale under Daniel Johnson,<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0004149 biography at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref> which claimed to be even more vigorously nationalist than its opponents.<ref> Lesage's party won 47% of the vote to Johnson's 41%, but the Union Nationale won 56 seats vs 51 because its vote was concentrated in rural constituencies which were overrepresented. Claude Ryan, "Quebec Changes Governments". ''Foreign Affairs'' 1966 45(1): 148-161. Issn: 0015-7120 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref> Meanwhile, the Liberal government in Ottawa, which had been reelected in 1965, secured the final adoption of a distinctive national flag featuring the maple leaf as the nation's symbol. Another important piece of legislation was the National Medicare Act, which provided for joint federal-provincial financing of universal health care insurance.
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| Quebec's "psychological secession" from Canada came in five stages: the Quiet Revolution of 1960, the 1980 sovereignty-association vote, the constitutional process of 1980-82, the Meech Lake Accord process of 1987-90, and the 1992 Charlottetown Accord referendum. The 1995 referendum for independence, saw the narrow victory for the "no" side. Liberal Prime Minister Jean Chrétien<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0001606 biography at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref> announced three policy initiatives that promised to change unemployment insurance, to recognize Quebec as a distinct society, and to empower Quebec and certain other Canadian regions to veto changes to the federal constitution. French-speaking Quebecois gradually replaced ethnic consciousness by allegiance to a "national state" on the territory of the province of Quebec. The '''Parti Québécois'' (PQ) emerged as a dominant nationalist party, formed in 1968.<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0006123 article in ''Canada Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref> PQ succeeded in passing two important charters, the Québec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms (1975)<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0009340 article at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref>, and Bill 101, Charte de la langue française (1977)<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000744 article at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref>, marked this significant evolution of Quebecois collective identity. Bill 101 made French the official language of the govbernment and of the courts in Quebec; more controversially it made French the normal language of the workplace, of instruction, of communications, of commerce and of business. Education in French became compulsory for immigrants, even those from other Canadian provinces. The failure of the 1980 referendum on independence, and the 1982 economic crisis, led to the return to power of Robert Bourassa's Liberals in 1986.
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| In the 1993 national elections the Progressive Conservative Party collapsed and the official opposition became the avowedly separatist '''Bloc Québécois''', a new party formed in 1991 for the national parliament.<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000829 article at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)]</ref> Inside Quebec the PQ regained power in 1994 under the resolutely nationalist leader Jacques Parizeau, and called for a referendum in 1995 it was convinced would lead to immediate independence. Preparations were made for diplomatic recognition and an army, but the "no" votes prevailed by 1%, largely because of the intense opposition of non-Francophones.<ref> See [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0010730 article at ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2000)], and Gregory S. Mahler, "Canadian Federalism and the 1995 Referendum: a Perspective from Outside of Quebec." ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' 1995 25(4): 449-476. Issn: 0272-2011 </ref>
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| The national government in Ottawa refused to countenance independence. Under the leadership of Prime Minister [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]]<ref> See [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=42553&query=quebec ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] </ref>, himself a leader in the Quiet Revolution, Ottawa countered with the concept of a single Canadian nation. Trudeau's actions culminated with the 1982 Constitution and the national Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which Quebec never endorsed and still is considered illegitimate by many Quebecers. The root problem is that Canada, as it is conceived by Anglophone Canadians, does not seem compatible with an enduring Quebec identity.<ref> Louis Balthazar, "Canada in the Setting of the New Nationalism
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| Quebec and the Ideal of Federalism," ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,'' Vol. 538, Being and Becoming Canada. (Mar., 1995), pp. 40-53. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-7162%28199503%29538%3C40%3AQATIOF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-N in JSTOR]</ref>
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| ====Recent politics====
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| The separatists were narrowly defeated in the 30 October 1995 referendum by 53,500 votes. Anglophones (English-speakers) and immigrants voted "no" as they vigorously sought to maintain Quebec's allegiance to the Canadian government. Francophones, using language with racial undertones, continue to foster the cause of an independent Quebec. Led by charismatic Lucien Bouchard, the separatists displayed an insensitivity toward those outside their ethnic group and ignored the difficulties independence would place on the debt-ridden, economically depressed province.<ref> J. A. S. Evans, "The Present State of Canada." ''Virginia Quarterly Review'' 1996 72(2): 213-225. Issn: 0042-675x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>
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| Lucien Bouchard served as Quebec's premier from 1996 until his resignation in 2001. He attempted to address high unemployment and cut the provincial deficit, particularly in the context of globalization and Quebec's developing national identity. In the areas of trade and investment, there was some success, especially as a result of the [[NAFTA|North American Free Trade Agreement]]. Secession remained at the forefront of the political agenda. The April 2003 provincial elections, which were a three-way race between the Parti Libéral du Québec (PLQ), the incumbent Parti Québécois (PQ), and the Action Démocratique du Québec (ADQ). Jean Charest, a former federal Progressive Conservative cabinet minister, led the PLQ to win the majority of seats in the National Assembly of Quebec. The issue of municipal reform and merger/consolidation proved unpopular in many areas, hurting the PQ. The PLQ's unprecedented majority symbolizes a new phase in Quebec politics and not the death of separatism.<ref> James P. Allan and Richard Vengroff, "The Changing Party System in Quebec: the 2003 Elections and Beyond." ''Québec Studies'' 2004 (37): 3-22. Issn: 0737-3759 </ref>
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| ====Social upheaval====
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| In social terms, the Quiet Revolution undercut the authority of the Church in taking away the schools and indeed the unquestioned authority of parish priests. The Union Nationale, the political party of Duplessis, together with the Catholic clergy, had actively propagated an ideology of conservatism: the Quebecois were destined to be peasants, to guarantee the survival of the Catholic religion and of the French language in North America. Gauvreau (2005) however reveals also a positive role that minority elements of the Church played in the origins of Quebec's Quiet Revolution. He argues that Catholic youth movements played a major positive role in the origin of the most profound of Quebec's multiple "quiet revolutions," beginning with the Catholic youth movements in the 1930s. They introduced "personalism", a philosophical movement from France that was a kind of neo-Thomism. In creating an active youth movement reformers inside the Church in effect repudiated much of the historic traditionalism of a peasant society, such as patriarchal families and sexuality focused solely on producing large families rather than companionate marriages.<ref> Michael Gauvreau, "From Rechristianization to Contestation: Catholic Values and Quebec Society, 1931-1970," ''Church History,'' Vol. 69, No. 4. (Dec., 2000), pp. 803-833 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-6407%28200012%2969%3A4%3C803%3AFRTCCV%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]; </ref>
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| The exodus began by 1960, with church attendance in Montreal plunging in half in the decade of the 1960s, with even faster declines in rural parishes. Young couple rejected the Church's renewed opposition to birth control. The Quebec independence movement focused on language and culture, and no longer saw Quebec as the stronghold of Catholicism.
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| The Parent Report on education in the province of Quebec (1963-66) was a key part of the Quiet Revolution that modernized and democratized education in Quebec. The report's attempt at democratizing manifested itself through its recommendations to open access to all levels of education; to create the Ministry of Education as a central authority responsible for all aspects of education; to replace local, religion-based educational authorities with local and regional authorities whose members would be elected directly by the parents rather than the general public; and to reorganize education finance in order to make it more equal. The article assesses the degree to which these recommnedations were implemented.
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| The Quiet Revolution moved the socialization of youth from private and social milieus, primarily the Church and family, to the public sphere, shaped by government policy, resulting in a more self-conscious socialization process. This process includes an emphasis on a shared francophone history and culture and on the importance of the French language to that culture. With new challenges to the institutionalization of the société distincte the state increasingly operates as a key agent of socialization.
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| ====Economy====
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| Before the 1960s the business and banking of Montreal and smaller cites was Anglophones; but by 2000 the business community was largely Francophone, particularly in management and the elite. Some large corporations relocated their headquarters to Toronto and retained their Anglophone character. Globalization strengthened the use of French. Foreign investment in new business increased, but the majority of foreign investment was in existing businesses. The provincial government implemented policies that supported successful exporting as well as other measures to stimulate an entrepreneurial business class. The Quebec government established offices across the U.S. to promote trade, direct investment and tourism. The Parti Québécois has always experienced a lack of American support in its struggle for sovereignty, especially during the [[Bill Clinton]] administration in the 1990s. Agriculture, mining, and forestry declined, however.<ref> Joseph Lemay, "The Impact of the Quiet Revolution: the Business Environment of Smaller Cities and Regions of Quebec 1960-2000." ''Québec Studies'' 2002-03 (34): 19-30. Issn: 0737-3759; William F. Averyt, "Quebec's Economic Development Policies, 1960-1987: Between Étatisme and Privatisation." ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' 1989 19(2): 159-175. Issn: 0272-2011 </ref>
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| ==Language and identity== | | ==Language and identity== |
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| == Geography == | | == Geography == |
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| === Cities === | | === Cities === |
| The ten largest cities by population in Quebec<ref>See [http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/popdwell/Table.cfm?T=302&PR=24&S=1&O=A&RPP=25 Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, and census subdivisions (municipalities), 2006 and 2001 censuses].</ref> are: | | The ten largest cities by population in Quebec<ref>See [http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/popdwell/Table.cfm?T=302&PR=24&S=1&O=A&RPP=25 Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, and census subdivisions (municipalities), 2006 and 2001 censuses].</ref> are: |
| # [[Montreal]] | | # [[Montreal, Quebec]] |
| # [[Quebec City]] | | # [[Quebec City]] |
| # [[Laval]] | | # [[Laval]] |
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| # [[Trois-Rivieres]] | | # [[Trois-Rivieres]] |
| # [[Terrebonne]] | | # [[Terrebonne]] |
| ==Bibliography==
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| * ''Frommer's Montreal & Quebec City 2008'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Frommers-Montreal-Quebec-City-Complete/dp/0470170433/ref=pd_bbs_sr_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199373095&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
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| * Kokker, Steve. ''Lonely Planet Quebec'' (2002) [http://www.amazon.com/Lonely-Planet-Quebec-Steve-Kokker/dp/1740590244/ref=pd_bbs_12?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199373095&sr=8-12 excerpt and text search]
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|
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| ===History===
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| ====Surveys====
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| * [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ ''The Dictionary of Canadian Biography''] (1966-2006), thousands of scholarly biographies of notables who died by 1930
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| * Armstrong, Robert. ''Structure and Change: An Economic History of Québec'' (1984)
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| * Atherton, William Henry. ''Montreal, 1535-1914'' (1914) [http://books.google.com/books?id=RT1KUs2ax0sC&dq=intitle:montreal+date:1900-1922&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 complete text online]
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| * Dickinson, John Alexander, and Brian Young. ''A Short History of Quebec'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Short-History-Quebec-Alexander-Dickinson/dp/0773524509/ref=pd_bbs_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1199373095&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]
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| * Eccles, W. J. ''The Canadian Frontier, 1534-1760'' (1983) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10657323 online edition]
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| * Heintzman, Ralph. "The Political Culture of Quebec, 1840-1960," ''Canadian Journal of Political Science / Revue canadienne de science politique,'' Vol. 16, No. 1. (Mar., 1983), pp. 3-59. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0008-4239%28198303%2916%3A1%3C3%3ATPCOQ1%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M in JSTOR]
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| * Lanctot, Gustave. ''A History of Canada'' 3 vol Toronto. 1963. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3115015 Volume One: From its Origins to the Royal Régime, 1663; online], [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=98311761 Volume Two: From the Royal Régime to the Treaty of Utrecht, 1663-1713, online]
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| * Linteau, Paul-André, René Durocher, Jean-Claude Robert, and Robert Chodos. ''Quebec: A History 1867-1929'' (1983) ''Quebec Since 1930'' (1991), standard 2 vol textbook.
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| * Moogk, Peter. ''La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada a Cultural History'' (2000) to 1763 [http://www.questia.com/library/book/la-nouvelle-france-the-making-of-french-canada-a-cultural-history-by-peter-moogk.jsp online edition]
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| * Ouellet, Fernand. ''Economy, class & nation in Quebec: Interpretive essays'' (1991), historiography
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| * Trofimenkoff, Susan Mann. ''Dream of Nation: A Social and Intellectual History of Quebec'' (1982)
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| * Wade, Mason. ''The French Canadians, 1760-1945'' (1955), standard history, 1136pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8474052 online edition]
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|
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| ====Before 1867====
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| * Brecher, Frank W. ''Losing a Continent: France's North American Policy, 1753-1763'' (1998) [http://www.amazon.com/Losing-Continent-American-1753-1763-Contributions/dp/0313307865/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1205993021&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
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| * Creighton, Donald G. ''The Commercial Empire of the St. Lawrence, 1760-1850'' (1937) [http://www.questia.com/read/96753630?title=The%20Commercial%20Empire%20of%20the%20St.%20Lawrence%2c%201760-1850 online edition]
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| * Dechêne, Louise. ''Habitants and Merchants in Seventeenth-Century Montreal'' (2003)
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| * Greer, Allan ''The people of New France'' (1997)
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| * Greer, Allan. ''The patriots and the people: the rebellion of 1837 in rural Lower Canada'' (1993)
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| * Greer, Allan. ''Peasant, Lord and Merchant: Rural Society in Three Quebec Parishes, 1740- 1840.'' (1985)
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| * Innis, Harold A. ''The Fur Trade in Canada'' (1930)
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| * Jaenen, Cornelius. ''Friend and Foe'' (1976) brief survey of French-Indian relations in the 16th & 17th centuries.
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| * Manning, Helen Taft; ''The Revolt of French Canada, 1800-1835: A Chapter of the History of the British Commonwealth'' (1962) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-revolt-of-french-canada-1800-1835-a-chapter-of-the-history-of-the-british-commonwealth-by-helen-taft-manning.jsp online edition]
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| * Moogk, Peter. ''La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada a Cultural History'' (2000) to 1763 [http://www.questia.com/library/book/la-nouvelle-france-the-making-of-french-canada-a-cultural-history-by-peter-moogk.jsp online edition]
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| * Ouellet, Fernand. ''Lower Canada, 1791-1840: Social Change and Nationalism'' (1980), synthesis by leading scholar
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| * Trudel, Marcel. ''The Beginnings of New France 1524-1663'' (1973)
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| * Wrong, George McKinnon. ''The Fall of Canada: A Chapter in the History of the Seven Years' War'' (1914), 272pp [http://books.google.com/books?id=KfJBAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:history+intitle:canada&lr=&num=30&as_brr=1 full text online]
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| * Young, Brian, ''George-Etienne Cartier: Montreal bourgeois'' (1981)
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|
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| ====20th century====
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| * Armstrong, Elizabeth H. ''The Crisis of Quebec, 1914-1918'' (1937)
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| * Betcherman, Lita-rose ''Ernest Lapointe: Mackenzie King's Great Quebec Lieutenant'' (2002) 438pp
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| * Behiels, Michael D. ''Prelude to Quebec's Quiet Revolution: Liberalism Versus Neo-Nationalism, 1945-1960'' (1985)
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| * Clarkson, Stephen, and Christina McCall. ''Trudeau and our times'' (2v., 1990–94)
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| * Cohen, Andrew, and J. L. Granatstein, eds. ''Trudeau's shadow: the life and legacy of Pierre Elliott Trudeau''. (1999).
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| * Couture, Claude, and Vivien Bosley. ''Paddling with the Current: Pierre Elliott Trudeau, Etienne Parent, Liberalism, and Nationalism in Canada'' (1998)
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| * Gagnon, Alain-G. and Montcalm, Mary Beth. ''Quebec beyond the Quiet Revolution.'' (2000) 221 pp.
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| * Gauvreau, Michael. ''The Catholic Origins of Quebec's Quiet Revolution, 1931-1970'' (2005)
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| * McRoberts, Kenneth. ''Quebec: Social Change and Political Crisis.'' (1988).
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| * Neatby, H. Blair. ''Laurier and a Liberal Quebec: A Study in Political Management'' (1973) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8104462 online edition]
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| * Quinn, Herbert F. ''The Union Nationale: A Study in Quebec Nationalism » Read Now'' (1963) 254 pgs. [http://www.questia.com/read/2983146?title=The%20Union%20Nationale%3a%20A%20Study%20in%20Quebec%20Nationalism online edition]
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| * Saywell, John. ''The Rise of the Parti Québécois 1967-76'' (1977) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1347933 online edition]
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| * Thomson, Dale C. ''Jean Lesage and the Quiet Revolution.'' (1984). 501 pp.
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|
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| ===Primary sources===
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| * Lamonde, Yvan and Corbo, Claude, eds. ''Le Rouge et le Bleu: Une Anthologie de la Pensée Politique au Québec de la Conquête à la Révolution Tranquille'' (1999). 576 pp.
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| * Lévesque, René. "For an Independent Quebec." ''Foreign Affairs'' 1976 54(4): 734-744. The author was president of the Parti Québécois. Issn: 0015-7120 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
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| * [http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/docs/index.htm Primary sources--texts]
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| * [http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/stats/index.htm Primary sources--statistics]]
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| ==External links==
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| * [http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/encyclopedia/index.htm L’Encyclopédie de l’histoire du Québec / The Quebec History Encyclopedia]
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| * [http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/sites/quebec.htm Online history resources]
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| * [http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/readings/index.htm Readings--secondary sources]
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| ==Notes== | | ==Notes== |
| <References/> | | <References/> |
