imported>John Stephenson |
|
| (78 intermediate revisions by 12 users not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
| The '''Orient''' is a controversial term that traditionally referred to the Middle-East, South Asia, and East Asia, or more specifically most regions east of Europe; many [[English language|English]] speakers in [[North America]] consider its use derogatory. Today, the term generally only refers to [[East Asia|East]] and [[South-east Asia]]; this would include [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[China]], [[Japan]], parts of [[Indonesia]], [[Korea]], [[Manchuria]], [[Mongolia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Thailand]], [[Taiwan]], [[Tibet]] and [[Vietnam]].
| | {{subpages}} |
| | '''Oriental''' refers traditionally to a generalized notion of the "East," including the Middle East, South Asia, and East Asia. In modern usage, it is applied to those parts of Asia east of Afghanistan, but outside of the Indian sub-continent; this would include [[Myanmar]] (formerly Burma), [[Cambodia]], China, [[Japan]], parts of [[Indonesia]], [[Korea]], [[Manchuria]], [[Mongolia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Thailand]], [[Taiwan]], [[Tibet]], and [[Vietnam]]. |
|
| |
|
| "Oriental" has been used by [[Western world|the West]] as a term to describe cultures, countries, peoples and goods from the Orient. For example, [[Mizrahi]] [[Jew]]s (native to the Middle East) are often referred to as Oriental Jews and it is common in older universities: the [[University of London]]'s [[School of Oriental and African Studies]], the [[University of Chicago]]'s Oriental Institute and the Universities of [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[Cambridge University|Cambridge]] both have a Faculty of Oriental Studies that focuses on the Middle East, East Asia and South Asia. The [[American Oriental Society]] remains the premier body for the study of Oriental societies.
| | [[Orientalism]] is the western (European and American) study of "the Orient" in its traditional, more expansive, sense. During the 19th century, fashion styles and collecting art inspired from the East, was also referred to as Orientalism. |
|
| |
|
| == Derivation == | | ==Derivation== |
| The term "Oriental" is derived from the Latin word ''oriens'', the present participle of "orior": to rise. The implication is that it refers to the rising sun. Thus, "Orient" describes the "land of the rising sun", i.e. the "Far East", and is exactly analogous with the Chinese (and Japanese) term for [[Japan]]. Similar terms such as "[[Levant]]" of French derivation and "[[Anatolia]]" from the Greek ''anatole,'' describe locations for the direction in which the sun rises. The opposite term "[[Occident]]" - derived from the Latin word ''occidens'', from the verb "occido": I fall - was once used to describe the [[western world]], i.e. the "land of the falling (setting) sun". | | The term "Orient" is derived from the Latin word ''oriens'', the present participle of "orior": to rise. The implication is that it refers to the rising sun. Thus, "Orient" describes the "land of the rising sun", i.e. the "Far East", and is exactly analogous with the Chinese and Japanese terms for [[Japan]]. Similar terms such as "[[Levant]]" of French derivation and "[[Anatolia]]" from the Greek ''anatole,'' describe locations for the direction in which the sun rises. The opposite term "[[Occident]]" - derived from the Latin word ''occidens'', from the verb "occido": I fall - was used to describe the [[western world]], i.e. the "land of the falling (setting) sun", and the term "occidental" is still sometimes used to refer to Europeans (and by extension, Americans of European origin). |
|
| |
|
| The creation of a polarity ''oriens/occidens'' originated in Roman imperial administration from the time of [[Diocletian]] and was taken up in Christian Latin literature. Despite this some scholars claim the term ''Orient'' did not enter Western European languages until the time of the [[Crusades]]<ref>Walter Burkert, ''The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age (Harvard University Press) 1992 p. 1 and note.</ref> | | The creation of a polarity ''oriens/occidens'' originated in Roman imperial administration from the time of [[Diocletian]] and was taken up in Christian Latin literature. Despite this some scholars claim the term ''Orient'' did not enter Western European languages until the time of the [[Crusades]]<ref>Walter Burkert, ''The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age (Harvard University Press) 1992 p. 1 and note.</ref> |
|
| |
|
| ==Perceptions & Connotations ==
| | The first recorded use of ''Orient'' in English is in Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales'' (1375), borrowed from Old French, and ''oriental'' as an adjective was used in about 1386 in Chaucer's ''Legend of Good Women''. <ref> ''Chambers Dictionary of Etymology'' (1988) ISBN 0-550-14230-4</ref>. |
| Although ''oriental'' is generally considered a neutral term in the UK (except when used to refer to people), other parts of the Commonwealth and most of Europe, there is some controversy regarding the connotations and implications of the term in North America. According to Abdurrahman R. Squires "politically correct terms have taken the place of the word 'Orientalism'". <ref>http://www.muslim-answers.org/orientalism.htm</ref> According to ''The Official Politically Correct Dictionary and Handbook'' the term is offensive and should be avoided. <ref>Beard, Henry and Cerf, Christopher. The Official Politically Correct Dictionary and Handbook. New York: Villard Books, 1993.</ref> However, the entire concept of [[political correctness]] and its many implications are the center of much debate.
| |
|
| |
|
| Thus, there is a certain degree of controversy associated with any politically correct term. So, while some people in 21st century America consider the term ''oriental'' derogatory, there are others who dispute this connotation.
| | Although the geographical term "Orient" is relatively neutral, there is a measure of controversy about the adjective and substantive forms when applied to individuals; see below. The adjective "oriental" has thus been used in Occidental (Western) societies as a term to describe cultures, cuisines, and goods (like rugs) from the Orient. Terms in common, non-controversial usage include species names ("oriental fruit fly") and cuisines ("oriental rice"), and usage in technical literature such as medicine. However "oriental medicine" is somewhat more controversial. <ref>http://www.acupuncture.ca.gov/pubs_forms/cons_guide_2002.pdf |
| | </ref> |
|
| |
|
| === References and Sensitivity Guides ===
| | Numerous organizations have a legacy use of "oriental" dating back many decades and have not changed. Legacy usage includes the University of London's School of Oriental and African Studies; the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge both have a Faculty of Oriental Studies; they focus on the Middle East, East Asia and South Asia. [http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/default.html The Oriental Institute] at the University of Chicago has been a leading research center since 1919. Scholars in the field belong to the [http://www.umich.edu/~aos/ The American Oriental Society], founded in 1842. |
| A number of reference works used in the United States describe ''Oriental'' as pejorative, antiquated or offensive "in some instances". However, the ''American Heritage Book of English Usage'' qualifies this charge by noting:
| |
| :''It is worth remembering, though, that Oriental is not an ethnic slur to be avoided in all situations. It is most objectionable in contemporary contexts and when used as a noun, as in "the appointment of an Oriental to head the commission". In these cases Asian (or a more specific term such as Vietnamese, Korean, or Asian American, if appropriate) is the only acceptable term. But in certain historical contexts, or when its exotic connotations are integral to the topic, Oriental remains a useful term.''<ref> "Asian." The American Heritage Book of English Usage [http://www.bartleby.com/64/C006/007.html#ASIAN]</ref>
| |
| Random House's ''Guide to Sensitive Language'' states "Other words (e.g., Oriental, colored) are outdated or inaccurate." This ''Guide to Sensitive Language'' suggests the use of "Asian or more specific designation such as Pacific Islander, Chinese American, [or] Korean." <ref>"Race, Ethnicity, and National Origin." Sensitive Language. [http://www.randomhouse.com/words/language/avoid_guide.html#race Random House]</ref> Merriam-Webster describes the term as "sometimes offensive,"<ref>"Oriental." [http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=oriental Merriam-Webster]</ref> Encarta states that when the term is used as a noun it is considered " a highly offensive term for somebody from East Asia" <ref>"Oriental." [http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861684868/Oriental.html] </ref> However, the same reference also defines the adjectival usage as "relating to East Asia (dated)" or "high quality".
| |
|
| |
|
| According to widely accepted textbook guidelines, there are many racially insensitive terms and concepts (including the word ''oriental'') which are to be avoided when used in conjunction with Asian people. [[Diane Ravitch]], a former assistant [[Secretary_of_Education| secretary of education]] under [[Bill_Clinton|Clinton]] and [[George_Bush|Bush]](considered by many to be "one of the country's most spirited and respected education analysts" <ref>http://www.sacbee.com/content/opinion/story/6184665p-7139626c.html%20| Sacramento Bee, February 27, 2003 "Editorial: Policing the vocabulary Textbook sensitivity goes fanatic"</ref>) has documented a series of images and depictions which are banned from textbooks and references.
| | Others legacies include the Oriental Food Association <ref>http://www.orientalfood.org/</ref>, and the Shriners (from 1903)<ref>http://www.webruler.com/shriners/oriental.htm</ref>. The American Association of Oriental Medicine and state associations of oriental medicine still use the term. <ref>http://www.aaom.org/ Website of American Association of Oriental Medicine</ref> The Oriental Martial Arts College and other martial arts organizations employ the term regularly. <ref>See [http://www.omacworld.com], [http://www.west-meet-east.com/martialarts.htm] and [http://www.orientalmartialarts.org/]</ref> Many Asian gangs such as the OPB, ''Oriental Playboys'', and the ORB ''Oriental Rutheless Boys'', refer to themselves as oriental to stress they are outside social norms .<ref>http://www.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/pressrel03/release121903.htm</ref><ref>http://www.fbi.gov/publications/leb/2003/feb2003/feb03leb.htm</ref> |
|
| |
|
| ===Historical Connotations === | | Belly dancing is also referred to as Oriental dancing. The Arabic term for belly dancing is ''raqs sharqi'' (Arabic: رقص شرقي) which roughly translates to 'Oriental dance'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Boushnak|first=Laura|date=6 April 2009|title=Raqs Sharqi or Oriental Dance|url=http://www.imow.org/wpp/stories/viewStory?storyId=3055|work=Women, Power and Politics|publisher=International Museum of Women|accessdate=16 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Plant|first=Carmen|date=16 February 2014|title=History of Raqs Sharqi Belly Dancing|url=http://www.raqsarabia.co.uk/html/history.php|publisher=Raqsarabia|accessdate=16 April 2014}}</ref> |
| In 19th century academia, some works in "Oriental studies" contained inaccurate information that Westerners then used to justify colonization of these countries. Some 19th and 20th century Europeans and Americans who used the term are thought to have held a patronizing attitude toward the region. Many of "these people" saw "the East" as backwards, while the West was seen as logical, rational and more modern. This view was first, and most famously, put forward by [[Edward Said]] in his [[Orientalism]].
| |
|
| |
|
| While the term is clearly an example of [[Eurocentrism]] some people do not think Eurocentrism is undesirable. Additionally, many scholarly works in the 19th and 20th Century were riddled with errors, but the outcry to replace words and phrases has not been even-handed or uniform. For example, according to the [[Encyclopedia Brittanica]] and Tim McCaskell of the Toronto Board of Education, the works of [[Charles Linnaeus]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Francis Galton]] and others have been used to justify many atrocities, including slavery, colonization, and racial genocide. Despite the fact that evil acts were justified by the works of these men, phrases such as the "[[Origin of Species]]"; the "[[Theory of Evolution]]"; the "[[General System of Nature]]"; "[[survival of the fittest]]" et.al., are still in use today. <ref>http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9108541/philosophical-anthropology</ref> <ref>http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jonmorro/race.html</ref> <ref> "A History of Race/ism", Prepared by Tim McCaskell, a representative of the Toronto Board of Education</ref> <ref>http://www.scholars.nus.edu.sg/victorian/history/empire/Empire.html</ref><ref>http://www.mediamonitors.net/harunyahya37.html</ref>
| | ==Controversial usage== |
| | In the 1960s, Asian Americans began protesting the term as applied to people as insulting. In the 1970s the [[Gerald R. Ford|Ford administration]] banned the word (as applied to people) from federal government usage. Today in educated and polite company, one very rarely hears the word applied to people. |
|
| |
|
| ===Serious Opposition to Textbooks and Sensitivity Guides ===
| | The adjective and substantive forms are now widely considered offensive when applied to people. While "I ordered oriental rice" is acceptable language, "I handed my coat to an oriental woman" is not. The reason is that the usage carries heavy baggage: a long tradition of connotations of being exotic, foreign, inscrutable, or mysterious, which coincide with many of the stereotypes held of Asians. Furthermore, many find the indiscriminate lumping together of groups with very distinct identities (such as Chinese, Japanese and Koreans)--perhaps because Westerners could not tell them apart--to be offensive. Alan Hu writes, "The upshot is to use whatever word you feel most comfortable with, or that makes your listeners most comfortable, but don't be surprised if someone takes offense." |
| Supporters of the traditional usage of the term ''oriental'' are frightened by how easy it is to ban a word from American textbooks. Toby Merrill of the [[Yale]] Book Review states:
| | <ref> See Alan Hu at [http://www.modelminority.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=183]</ref> |
| ::''All it takes to forever banish a word or image from schools across the nation is a well-placed, vocal group to lobby the Board of Education in either of these states. It is in the California market that publishers feel the most pressure from the left.'' <ref>http://www.yalereviewofbooks.com/archive/summer03/review12.shtml.htm Yale Book Review</ref>
| |
|
| |
|
| Although the definitions found in most dictionaries are sufficiently vague to argue for or against the appropriateness of the term ''Oriental'' in some contexts, many Americans feel that banning words and images has gone too far. Judge [[Robert Bork]] in ''Slouching Towards Gomorrah'' writes, "Now, however, the educational system has become the weapon of choice for modern liberals in their project of dismantling American culture."
| | Usage guides offer different warnings. The ''American Heritage Book of English Usage'' explains: |
| | :''Oriental is not an ethnic slur to be avoided in all situations. It is most objectionable in contemporary contexts and when used as a noun, as in "the appointment of an Oriental to head the commission". In these cases Asian (or a more specific term such as Vietnamese, Korean, or Asian American, if appropriate) is the only acceptable term. But in certain historical contexts, or when its exotic connotations are integral to the topic, Oriental remains a useful term.''<ref> "Asian." The American Heritage Book of English Usage [http://www.bartleby.com/64/C006/007.html#ASIAN]</ref> |
|
| |
|
| Scholarly works such as "[[The Language Police]]", "The Battle of the Books" and "Challenging the Myths about Multicultural Education" have argued for the continued usage of politically incorrect terms including ''Oriental''. <ref>http://mtprof.msun.edu/Win1994/PTrev.html</ref><ref>Battle of the Books: The Curriculum Debate in America 1993 James Atlas published by W W Norton & Co Inc</ref><ref>The Language Police: How Pressure Groups Restrict What Children Learn by Diane Ravitch (c) 2003 published by Knopf</ref><ref>http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ497173&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&objectId=0900000b8003e14e Challenging the Myths about Multicultural Education by Carl A Grant</ref><ref>"Multicultural Education Through the Lens of the Multicultural Education Research Literature." by J.A. Banks and C.A. McGee Banks (eds.). Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education NY: Simon. and Schuster Macmillan</ref> [[Diane Ravitch]] has documented the existence of an elaborate and well-established protocol of beneficent censorship, quietly endorsed and implemented by textbook publishers, states, and the federal government. "Publishers practice self-censorship to sell books in big states." <ref>http://www.randomhouse.com/knopf/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780375414824</ref> Ravitch has documented "the 'bias guidelines'" for major publishers of texts and tests. "The "bias guidelines" consist of advice to writers and editors about words and topics that must be avoided."<ref>http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110003695</ref>
| | Many sensitivity guides more forcefully recommend against its application to people. Random House's ''Guide to Sensitive Language'' states: "Other words (e.g., Oriental, colored) are outdated or inaccurate." This reference also suggests the use of "Asian" or more specific designation such as Pacific Islander, Chinese American, or Korean. <ref>"Race, Ethnicity, and National Origin." Sensitive Language. [http://www.randomhouse.com/words/language/avoid_guide.html#race Random House] Merriam-Webster college dictionaries describes the term as "sometimes offensive," [http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=oriental Merriam-Webster] Encarta states that when the term is used as a noun it is considered "a highly offensive term for somebody from East Asia" [http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861684868/Oriental.html] </ref> While the term "Oriental" is an example of Eurocentrism some endorse Eurocentrism and use the term deliberately.<ref> White supremacy groups champion use of the word. See Walter Nowotny, "Political Correctness and the Power of Names" on the ''Pro-White Forum'', 7/02/2002 at [http://www.churchoftrueisrael.com/nsforum/ns7-02a.html] </ref> |
|
| |
|
| Laurie Morrow, a former Salvatori Fellow of the [[Heritage Foundation]] and professor of English mocked proponents of political correctness and attempt to imply extreme sarcasm when she wrote the following in support of traditional usage of the term ''oriental'':
| | The Washington State legislature held that |
| ::''Although the Japanese proudly consider themselves eastern--from the Land of the Rising Sun (remember that World War II flag?)--don't call them "Oriental," for this is Eurocentric, and one should have no center in the happy world of cultural equivalence. (One wonders whether the language police would object to a Tokyo resident's using the term Occidental?)''<ref>http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2003/September/bk2pub.asp</ref>
| | :''the use of the term "Oriental" when used to refer to persons of Asian descent is outdated and pejorative. There is a need to make clear that the term "Asian" is preferred terminology, and that this more modern and nonpejorative term must be used to replace outdated terminology.''<ref> RCW 1.20.130: "Preferred terminology in government documents." [http://apps.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=1.20.130 Revised Code of Washington]. The controversial version applying to Asians sometimes appears in obscure government documents, but has mostly been removed by 2007. See for a state document [http://www.michigan.gov/documents/cis_ofis_fis_1043_24817_7.pdf], for a library classification see [http://www.loc.gov/acq/devpol/sociology.html]</ref> |
|
| |
|
| Professor Morrow also writes:
| | In the UK, however, the term "Asian" normally refers to South, not East, Asians. |
|
| |
|
| ::''The language police seek to eliminate anything that might cause students discomfort or distress. The world is, however, a difficult and trying place, full of ideas that must be resisted and fought. What students need to learn are courage and perseverance in the face of difficulty, so that they can confront what should be resisted--including censorship by the language police.''<ref>http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2003/September/bk2pub.asp</ref>
| | Geographical terms are not controversial when used for people and places, e.g., ''South Asia'', ''East Asia'', and ''South-East Asia''. Although ''Far Eastern'' is considered less offensive than ''Oriental'', ''East Asian'' is preferred because this term is significantly less Eurocentric. Other alternative terms include ''Asia and the Pacific'' or ''the Pacific Rim'' or ''the Pacific Basin''. Terms such as these may also be preferred because they do not collapse East and South-east Asian peoples into the same group. |
| | |
| However, even those who support traditional usage of words and terms do not support an end to all sensitivity. Sybil Maimin writes:
| |
| ::'' Ravitch does not call for elimination of bias and sensitivity panels but rather for their work, now behind closed doors, to be open to public view. She believes that teachers or school districts rather than state officials should choose books for the classroom, which would decrease the power of pressure groups and lessen uniformity. She has confidence that “language evolves in response to social change. Lots of words disappear naturally,”'' <ref>http://www.educationupdate.com/archives/2003/june03/issue/spot_ravitch.html Education Update</ref>
| |
| | |
| | |
| ===Alternative terminology===
| |
| Those who believe the term is derogatory or archaic prefer to employ geographical terms for people and places typically desribed by ''oriental'', e.g., ''South Asia'', ''East Asia'', and ''South-East Asia''. Although the ''Far Eastern'' is considered more politically correct than ''Oriental'', ''East Asian'' is preferred because this verbiage is significantly less Eurocentric. Other politically correct alternative terms include ''Asia and the Pacific'' or ''the Pacific Rim'' or ''the Pacific Basin''.
| |
| | |
| ==Current Usage of Oriental and Related Depictions ==
| |
| The term is used widely across a broad spectrum of North America.
| |
| | |
| ===In Government===
| |
| Although the term Oriental is "sometimes offensive", the term remains inoffensive sometimes and wide use in across the United States. This usage is evidenced by many sources. The term is used on a great number of governmental document and websites across in the USA describing place names <ref>http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/about/pr2004/pr04_61.html</ref>, medicine<ref>http://www.acupuncture.ca.gov/pubs_forms/cons_guide_2002.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.health.gov/nhic/NHICScripts/Entry.cfm?HRCode=HR2824</ref>, wildlife <ref>http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-IMPACT/2003/January/Day-10/i491.htm</ref><ref>http://ecos.fws.gov/species_profile/servlet/gov.doi.species_profile.servlets.SpeciesProfile?spcode=B03C</ref> plants<ref>http://www.in.gov/dnr/invasivespecies/oriental_bittersweet_1.pdf</ref>, food<ref>http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/public/heart/other/syah/orierice.htm</ref><ref>http://hawaii.gov/health/about/rules/11-29.pdf</ref> and people <ref>http://bioethics.gov/transcripts/jun03/session2.html</ref><ref>http://www.michigan.gov/documents/cis_ofis_fis_1043_24817_7.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.fws.gov/midwest/horicon/nativeamericans.html</ref> or communities.<ref>http://www.loc.gov/acq/devpol/sociology.html</ref><ref>http://vitalrecords.alaska.gov/dph/bvs/PDFs/1999/annual_report/Introduction.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/census/Folder.2005-11-23.1639/ec02-reference/small_diner_condensed_final.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.nps.gov/archive/manz/hrs/hrs10i.htm</ref><ref>http://www.va.gov/vetapp/files1/9401243.txt</ref><ref>http://www.michigan.gov/documents/GBFT0203_61996_7.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.nifl.gov/nifl-health/1998/0198.html</ref> The term is even found on Equal Opportunity Employment<ref>http://ocp.dc.gov/ocp/frames.asp?doc=/ocp/lib/ocp/information/solatt/attachment_j.04_eeo_compliance_documents.doc&open=|34644|</ref> and Fair Housing <ref>http://www.hud.gov/offices/fheo/library/part109.pdf</ref> documents.
| |
| | |
| Conversely, at least two state legislatures have passed or proposed legislation declaring a preference for terms other than Oriental in official documents. A finding by the Washington State legislature held that
| |
| :''the use of the term "Oriental" when used to refer to persons of Asian descent is outdated and pejorative. There is a need to make clear that the term "Asian" is preferred terminology, and that this more modern and nonpejorative term must be used to replace outdated terminology.''<ref> RCW 1.20.130: "Preferred terminology in government documents." [http://apps.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=1.20.130 Revised Code of Washington]</ref>
| |
| In 2005, the California senate mandated that the terms "oriental massage" and "oriental medicine" in existing statutes be changed to "Asian medicine" and "Asian massage." <ref>[http://www.sen.ca.gov/sfa/2005/_05_DL11.HTM California State Senate]</ref> Despite this "mandate" businesses and schools across California and the country continue to employ the term. <ref>http://www.acupuncture.ca.gov/education/schools.htm</ref><ref>http://yp.yahoo.com/py/ypMap.py?Pyt=Typ&tuid=12363968&ck=2317990383&tab=B2C&tcat=8106973&city=Monterey&state=CA&uzip=93940&country=us&msa=7120&cs=4&ed=3Cjhzq1o2TwW0JlAiouvxdEhci7IWZ92n2SEvi.yLw_KCQ--&stat=:pos:0:regular:regT:2:fbT:0</ref><ref>http://www.csomaonline.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3289</ref><ref>http://yp.yahoo.com/py/ypResults.py?stx=oriental+medicine&stp=a&tab=B2C&city=Los+Angeles&state=CA&uzip=90012&country=us&msa=4480&slt=34.052170&sln=-118.243469&cs=4&Submit=Search</ref> California has not purged the term from current documents or websites and the term remains on many pages which display "© 2007 State of California". <ref>http://www.acupuncture.ca.gov/law_reg/art35</ref><ref>http://www.acupuncture.ca.gov/exams/stats_mar2006.htm</ref> <ref>http://www.acupuncturetoday.com/mpacms/at/article.php?id=27949&MERCURYSID=719fb03a0214a10a71b0f5217cfbddae</ref>
| |
| <ref>http://www.acupuncture.ca.gov/law_reg/1399_45_modtext.pdf</ref><ref>http://www.acupuncture.ca.gov/pubs_forms/cons_guide_2002.pdf</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===In Business===
| |
| Businesses such as [[Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company]], [[Mandarin Oriental]], [[Oriental Financial Group, Inc.]],[[Orient Thai Airlines]], [[Orient Steam Navigation Company]], [[Orient Watch Co.]], [[Neptune Orient Lines]] are just a few of many successful enterprises to share this term as a part of their name.
| |
| | |
| ===In Academia===
| |
| Many universities no longer accept the usage of the term ''Oriental'' when describing people. <ref>http://www.freewebs.com/bannedwords</ref> However, the highly-regarded [[American Oriental Society]] and many others continue to use the term in its publishings. <ref>http://www.degruyter.de/journals/zac/261_5290_ENU_h.htm</ref><ref>http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/default.html</ref><ref>http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/linguist/index.html</ref><ref>http://www.ksi.edu/seke/cpol.html</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Other===
| |
| According to the [[FBI]], some Asian gangs, the "OPB" ("Oriental Playboys"), and the ORB ("Oriental Rutheless Boys"), refer to themselves as ''oriental''.
| |
| <ref>http://www.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/pressrel03/release121903.htm</ref><ref>http://www.fbi.gov/publications/leb/2003/feb2003/feb03leb.htm</ref>
| |
| | |
| Conservative commentators <ref>http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=16541</ref> and prominent Filipina [[Michelle Malkin]] regularly employ the term. <ref>http://michellemalkin.com/archives/000239.htm</ref> <ref>http://michellemalkin.com/archives/006107.htm?print=1</ref> <ref>http://michellemalkin.com/archives/000239.htm</ref><ref>http://www.altavista.com/web/results?itag=ody&pg=aq&aqmode=s&aqa=oriental&aqp=&aqo=&aqn=&aqb=&kgs=1&kls=0&dt=tmperiod&d2=0&dfr%5Bd%5D=1&dfr%5Bm%5D=1&dfr%5By%5D=1980&dto%5Bd%5D=4&dto%5Bm%5D=11&dto%5By%5D=2006&filetype=&rc=dmn&swd=michellemalkin.com&lh=&nbq=10</ref>.
| |
| | |
| The Oriental Food Association <ref>http://www.orientalfood.org/</ref>, Oriental Bellydancer Association <ref>http://www.orientdance.ru/index_e.htm</ref><ref>http://homepage.realtv21.com/?userid=obda_1&pagetype=&viewno=94</ref>, The Association of Oriental Arts <ref>http://www.art-virtue.com/demo/2006-TaoArt/index.htm</ref>, the Shriners <ref>http://www.webruler.com/shriners/oriental.htm</ref><ref>http://www.ladiesorientalshrine.org/home.html</ref> and other social groups continue to use the term. The American Association of Oriental Medicine and many other state-specific associations of oriental medicine still use the term. <ref>http://www.aaom.org/ Website of American Association of Oriental Medicine</ref> The World Wide Web has a profusion of "oriental" [[pornography]] and so-called [[mail order bride]] sites that exploit stereotypes as well desperate individuals on both sides of the transaction. <ref>http://www.oriental-bikini.com/</ref><ref>http://www.orientals.com/</ref><ref>http://www.orientalcompanion.com</ref> The Oriental Martial Arts College and other martial arts organizations employ the term regularly. <ref>http://www.omacworld.com</ref><ref>http://www.west-meet-east.com/martialarts.htm</ref><ref>http://www.orientalmartialarts.org/</ref>
| |
| | |
| ===Regional Variations===
| |
| Major objections to the use of the word "Oriental" are chiefly limited to certain elements in [[North America]]. Its usage is not controversial in [[Europe]], where the word is considered neutral and in widespread usage as evidenced by its usage on the online British Monarchy Media Centre.<ref>http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/page5495.asp</ref> In France the terms "l'Occident" and "l'Orient" are used without any negative associations in academic contexts. In Europe the term is often used to describe such things as [[Eastern world|the East]]'s cuisine and goods, ancient culture, and religions, at times to denote an exotic quality with upmarket or mildly positive connotations. In the UK the term "[[Asian]]" has become almost exclusively tied to the [[Indian subcontinent]], as evidenced through [[BBC Asian Network]], a radio station of the BBC devoted to the [[British Asian]] community - though the term ''South Asian'' is becoming more widely-used.<ref>''BBC Asian Network'': '[http://www.bbc.co.uk/asiannetwork/documentaries/dontcallmeasian.shtml Don't Call Me Asian].' 9th October 2006.</ref>
| |
|
| |
|
| ==Notes== | | ==Notes== |
| <div class="references-small">
| | {{reflist|2}} |
| <references/>
| |
| </div>
| |
| | |
| ===References and further reading===
| |
| * [http://www.umich.edu/~aos/ The American Oriental Society]
| |
| * [http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/default.html The Oriental Instititute] at University of Chicago
| |
| * [http://www.modelminority.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=183 On ''Asian'' and ''Oriental''] Model Minority posting by Alan Hu
| |
| * [http://www.freewebs.com/bannedwords/ Banned Words] For comparative analysis: a list "banned" words (including ''Oriental'') as documented by Diane Ravitch.
| |
| * [http://www.amazon.com/Language-Police-Pressure-Restrict-Students/dp/customer-reviews/0375414827 The Language Police: How Pressure Groups Restrict What Students Learn] Explains how "Oriental" and other terms were "banned" from textbooks
| |
| | |
| [[Category: Linguistics Workgroup]]
| |
| [[Category: Geography Workgroup]]
| |
| [[Category: Sociology Workgroup]]
| |
| [[Category: CZ Live]]
| |
Oriental refers traditionally to a generalized notion of the "East," including the Middle East, South Asia, and East Asia. In modern usage, it is applied to those parts of Asia east of Afghanistan, but outside of the Indian sub-continent; this would include Myanmar (formerly Burma), Cambodia, China, Japan, parts of Indonesia, Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, the Philippines, Thailand, Taiwan, Tibet, and Vietnam.
Orientalism is the western (European and American) study of "the Orient" in its traditional, more expansive, sense. During the 19th century, fashion styles and collecting art inspired from the East, was also referred to as Orientalism.
Derivation
The term "Orient" is derived from the Latin word oriens, the present participle of "orior": to rise. The implication is that it refers to the rising sun. Thus, "Orient" describes the "land of the rising sun", i.e. the "Far East", and is exactly analogous with the Chinese and Japanese terms for Japan. Similar terms such as "Levant" of French derivation and "Anatolia" from the Greek anatole, describe locations for the direction in which the sun rises. The opposite term "Occident" - derived from the Latin word occidens, from the verb "occido": I fall - was used to describe the western world, i.e. the "land of the falling (setting) sun", and the term "occidental" is still sometimes used to refer to Europeans (and by extension, Americans of European origin).
The creation of a polarity oriens/occidens originated in Roman imperial administration from the time of Diocletian and was taken up in Christian Latin literature. Despite this some scholars claim the term Orient did not enter Western European languages until the time of the Crusades[1]
The first recorded use of Orient in English is in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (1375), borrowed from Old French, and oriental as an adjective was used in about 1386 in Chaucer's Legend of Good Women. [2].
Although the geographical term "Orient" is relatively neutral, there is a measure of controversy about the adjective and substantive forms when applied to individuals; see below. The adjective "oriental" has thus been used in Occidental (Western) societies as a term to describe cultures, cuisines, and goods (like rugs) from the Orient. Terms in common, non-controversial usage include species names ("oriental fruit fly") and cuisines ("oriental rice"), and usage in technical literature such as medicine. However "oriental medicine" is somewhat more controversial. [3]
Numerous organizations have a legacy use of "oriental" dating back many decades and have not changed. Legacy usage includes the University of London's School of Oriental and African Studies; the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge both have a Faculty of Oriental Studies; they focus on the Middle East, East Asia and South Asia. The Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago has been a leading research center since 1919. Scholars in the field belong to the The American Oriental Society, founded in 1842.
Others legacies include the Oriental Food Association [4], and the Shriners (from 1903)[5]. The American Association of Oriental Medicine and state associations of oriental medicine still use the term. [6] The Oriental Martial Arts College and other martial arts organizations employ the term regularly. [7] Many Asian gangs such as the OPB, Oriental Playboys, and the ORB Oriental Rutheless Boys, refer to themselves as oriental to stress they are outside social norms .[8][9]
Belly dancing is also referred to as Oriental dancing. The Arabic term for belly dancing is raqs sharqi (Arabic: رقص شرقي) which roughly translates to 'Oriental dance'.[10][11]
Controversial usage
In the 1960s, Asian Americans began protesting the term as applied to people as insulting. In the 1970s the Ford administration banned the word (as applied to people) from federal government usage. Today in educated and polite company, one very rarely hears the word applied to people.
The adjective and substantive forms are now widely considered offensive when applied to people. While "I ordered oriental rice" is acceptable language, "I handed my coat to an oriental woman" is not. The reason is that the usage carries heavy baggage: a long tradition of connotations of being exotic, foreign, inscrutable, or mysterious, which coincide with many of the stereotypes held of Asians. Furthermore, many find the indiscriminate lumping together of groups with very distinct identities (such as Chinese, Japanese and Koreans)--perhaps because Westerners could not tell them apart--to be offensive. Alan Hu writes, "The upshot is to use whatever word you feel most comfortable with, or that makes your listeners most comfortable, but don't be surprised if someone takes offense."
[12]
Usage guides offer different warnings. The American Heritage Book of English Usage explains:
- Oriental is not an ethnic slur to be avoided in all situations. It is most objectionable in contemporary contexts and when used as a noun, as in "the appointment of an Oriental to head the commission". In these cases Asian (or a more specific term such as Vietnamese, Korean, or Asian American, if appropriate) is the only acceptable term. But in certain historical contexts, or when its exotic connotations are integral to the topic, Oriental remains a useful term.[13]
Many sensitivity guides more forcefully recommend against its application to people. Random House's Guide to Sensitive Language states: "Other words (e.g., Oriental, colored) are outdated or inaccurate." This reference also suggests the use of "Asian" or more specific designation such as Pacific Islander, Chinese American, or Korean. [14] While the term "Oriental" is an example of Eurocentrism some endorse Eurocentrism and use the term deliberately.[15]
The Washington State legislature held that
- the use of the term "Oriental" when used to refer to persons of Asian descent is outdated and pejorative. There is a need to make clear that the term "Asian" is preferred terminology, and that this more modern and nonpejorative term must be used to replace outdated terminology.[16]
In the UK, however, the term "Asian" normally refers to South, not East, Asians.
Geographical terms are not controversial when used for people and places, e.g., South Asia, East Asia, and South-East Asia. Although Far Eastern is considered less offensive than Oriental, East Asian is preferred because this term is significantly less Eurocentric. Other alternative terms include Asia and the Pacific or the Pacific Rim or the Pacific Basin. Terms such as these may also be preferred because they do not collapse East and South-east Asian peoples into the same group.
Notes
- ↑ Walter Burkert, The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age (Harvard University Press) 1992 p. 1 and note.
- ↑ Chambers Dictionary of Etymology (1988) ISBN 0-550-14230-4
- ↑ http://www.acupuncture.ca.gov/pubs_forms/cons_guide_2002.pdf
- ↑ http://www.orientalfood.org/
- ↑ http://www.webruler.com/shriners/oriental.htm
- ↑ http://www.aaom.org/ Website of American Association of Oriental Medicine
- ↑ See [1], [2] and [3]
- ↑ http://www.fbi.gov/dojpressrel/pressrel03/release121903.htm
- ↑ http://www.fbi.gov/publications/leb/2003/feb2003/feb03leb.htm
- ↑ Boushnak, Laura (6 April 2009). Raqs Sharqi or Oriental Dance. Women, Power and Politics. International Museum of Women. Retrieved on 16 April 2014.
- ↑ Plant, Carmen (16 February 2014). History of Raqs Sharqi Belly Dancing. Raqsarabia. Retrieved on 16 April 2014.
- ↑ See Alan Hu at [4]
- ↑ "Asian." The American Heritage Book of English Usage [5]
- ↑ "Race, Ethnicity, and National Origin." Sensitive Language. Random House Merriam-Webster college dictionaries describes the term as "sometimes offensive," Merriam-Webster Encarta states that when the term is used as a noun it is considered "a highly offensive term for somebody from East Asia" [6]
- ↑ White supremacy groups champion use of the word. See Walter Nowotny, "Political Correctness and the Power of Names" on the Pro-White Forum, 7/02/2002 at [7]
- ↑ RCW 1.20.130: "Preferred terminology in government documents." Revised Code of Washington. The controversial version applying to Asians sometimes appears in obscure government documents, but has mostly been removed by 2007. See for a state document [8], for a library classification see [9]
