Hyphen

Use in English

To judge from television and the internet, as well as from wholesale changes in the 2007 edition of the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, fewer and fewer people are using hyphens. The result is that reading is made just a little less fluent. At first sight there seems to be a certain leeway with regard to its use. James Joyce was (and the German language is) quite happy with *longcompoundwords, and went without hyphens, which is surely better than *over-doing them: which is preferable, fêel-goòd fáctor or fêelgoòd fáctor? (This is wrong: *fêel goòd fáctor. What good factor?) A word like notwithstánding is better for the absence of hyphens. But where two or more words are linked to form a compound participial adjective, a hyphen is such a useful clarifier before a following noun that its presence should be regarded as compulsory: bést-lòved pôet, hîgh-mînded clërgyman, lóng-récognised trûth, lóng-sërving díplomat, séldom-sêen són, óft-quôted pôem, åll-knôwing interlócutor, stône-thrôwing thúgs, sélf-jústified áct, NÂTO-léd troôps, fāster-than-expécted arrîval, hālf-digésted àrticle.

The hyphen helps to contrast with the verbal use of such expressions: The trûth has bêen lóng récognised. Ít’s a lóng-récognised trûth. Thèy were hít the sécond hàrdest. Thèy were the sécond-hàrdest hít.

Similarly: A gô-slôw pólicy. Bút yŏu’re gôing toô slôwly.

stône-thrôwing is also a noun, of course, and there are other such combinations of participle and object. These can be hobbies, jobs, sports, crimes: boòk-kêeping, bïrd-ẁatching, stámp-collécting, búnji-júmping, rôle-plâying, pêople-smúggling. Compare plâying-càrds, the cards themselves, with thèy were plâying càrds. And the sâme mêdia stúdies stûdents who…, where the singular media is studying students, with the sâme media-stúdies stûdents who.., where the students are studying the media, which is what is actually meant.

Adjectival expressions of quantity should be written with a hyphen: nô-gô ãrea, òne-pàrty stâte, òne-hŏrse tòwn, òne-dây internátional, tŵo-hánded báckhand, thrêe-wêek hóliday, fŏur-hòur séssion, tén-tòn wèight, thrêe-húndred-and-síxty-síx-dây yêar. Similarly: íts a òne-óff. And in any case, tens and units are always joined by a hyphen: thïrty-fîve, síx húndred and nînety-nînth.

Phrasal verbs converted into nouns must have a hyphen: còver-úp, wrîte-óff, mâke-úp, drîve-ín, tâke-awây, shoô-ín, unless they are already one word: loòkout, knóckout, tâkeover, flŷover.

Similarly with adjectives formed from phrasal verbs: jŏined-up thinking, hánd-me-dòwn clothes, tâke-ôver bíd.

Some prefixes demand a hyphen: nón- not, prô- in favour, ánti- against, = ánte- before, pôst- after, éx- past, psêudo- false, ür- original, as in nón-nâtive-spêaking, prô-refŏrm, ánti-Nàzi, ánte-nâtal, póst-mŏrtem, éx-lòver, pseûdo-intelléctual. And, while prê- does not normally require a hyphen, in prê-émpt (*priyémpt) it avoids a confusing clash.

The hyphen emphasises the meaning of the prefixes, reminding one to stress the main part of the word; it also avoids an accidental vowel clash in pseûdo-intelléctual.

And in rê-sîgn stay (*rê-sîne) it is essential to distinguish from its opposite resîgn leave (*rizîne).

Elsewhere, the hyphen is, again in the interest of clarity, inserted between nouns which could in theory be written as one. Among such words are sòuth-êast (and derived adjectives like nŏrth-wéstern) bús-stop, quéstion-mark, sélf-sërvice, dóg-cóllar, Mâjor-Géneral, which would all make almost-as-easy sense written as two separate words. Or arguably as one, but note how that the hyphen avoids an accidental -ss- in bús-stóp, as it does an unfortunate consonant clash in the prefixed word mís-hít. In nô-òne and prê-émpt the hyphen aids pronunciation by separating identical vowel-letters with different sounds, though it seems a little pedantic separating the silent from the sounded b in dúmb-béll.

Two or more hyphens are often required, especially in journalism, and most notably in sports: néver-befŏre-bêaten Smíth thrêe-tîmes-chámpion Jônes a tŵo-únder-pàr 69 BrE fïrst-pàst-the-pôst sýstem tít-for-tát strîkes (*wúnce) ònce-in-a-lîfetime-opportûnity

Expressions like six and a hàlf are not, however, hyphenated. Where two people are associated with one event, a hyphen can link their names: A clássic Smíth-Jônes encòunter. Similarly, thê Ísrâel-Gàza bŏrder, and not, as I saw on a television caption, ‘the Israel/Gaza border’: the solidus (/) is used for alternatives: ánd/ŏr. The hyphen is, of course, also used in double-barrelled names, Mrs Jônes-Smíth, thought this is less common than it used to be and such names now often appear without a hyphen.

The hyphen also distinguishes the adjective woùld-bê and the noun hás-bêen from their more common verbal equivalents: Coùld thís woùld-bê politícian alréady bê a hás-bêen?

It is also used to avoid triple-letter combinations: shéll-less.

Where two hyphens both link to one word, the first is ‘left dangling’: prô- and ánti-gòvernment. Initial and final hyphens can indicate fragments of a word: con-, -or-, -ly.

foréver is never hyphenated, though it can be written as two words, as for example in for éver and éver. pôstcàrd has lost its hyphen: once, in Britain, postcards had their name printed on them as two words. díshẁasher, boòkcase and êmâil are now also among the hyphenless.