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| The '''Ottoman Empire''' controlled much of the Middle East from the 15th century to 1923. | | The '''Ottoman Empire''' controlled much of the Middle East from the 15th century to 1923. |
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| | {{Image|TurkishEmpire1687.png|center|700px|Ottoman Empire, 1687 map}} |
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| | The first Ottoman Sultan, Osman I, after whom the dynasty and empire are named, declared himself independent of the Seljuq Sultanate in 1299. At what point in its expansion the sultanate starts to count as an empire is ultimately a matter of arbitrary convention. Sultan Mehmet (Muhammad) II is known as Mehmet the conqueror because in his brief reign he captured Constantinople (29 May 1453), the capital of the Byzantine or East Roman Empire. He adopted the title Qeyser-i-Rum, Roman Emperor. |
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| | In 1517 the Empire conquered the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and also Cairo, the seat of the widely recognized Abbasid Caliphs after Baghdad fell to the Mongols in 1258. The Sultans' claim to the title of Caliph came to be generally recognized. It was in this capacity that the Sultan declared a [[jihad]] against the Allies in 1914. |
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| | ==Administration== |
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| | The Empire was largely administered by some of the Sultan's slaves, who were thus far more powerful and wealthy than most free people. |
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| | ==Law of succession== |
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| | The right of succession to the throne belonged (and still belongs in the eyes of monarchists) to the oldest male member of the House of Osman. After the traditional practice of executing possible claimants was discontinued, this meant that the Sultan would usually be succeeded by a brother, uncle or cousin rather than his own son. |
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| | ==Military== |
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| | The elite force of the Turkish military were the [[Janissaries]], who were recruited by stealing very young boys from Christian families and bringing them up as fanatical Muslims. |
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| | ==Education== |
| | see [[Higher education in the Ottoman Empire]] |
| ==20th century== | | ==20th century== |
| see [[Armenian Genocide]]
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| * [[Turkey]]
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| ==Bibliography==
| | The remaining territories outside what is now Turkey were stripped away after the First World War. The last Sultan was deposed in 1922. |
| * Abou-el-Haj, Rifa‘t ‘Ali. ''Formation of the Modern State: The Ottoman Empire, Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries.'' 1991
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| * Braude, Benjamin, and Bernard Lewis, eds. ''Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society '' (1982) [http://www.questia.com/read/52272246 online edition]
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| * Clot, André. ''Suleiman the Magnificent.'' 1993. 399 pp
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| * Finkel, Caroline. '' Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire'' (2006), standard scholarly survey [http://www.amazon.com/Osmans-Dream-History-Ottoman-Empire/dp/0465023967/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874589&sr=8-6 excerpt and text search]
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| * Gibb, Hamilton, and Harold Bowen. ''Islamic Society and the West''. Vol. 1, pt. 2. London, 1963
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| * Goffman, Daniel. ''The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/107381987 online edition]
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| * Goodwin, Jason. ''Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Lords-Horizons-History-Ottoman-Empire/dp/0312420668/ref=sr_1_16?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874589&sr=8-16 excerpt and text search]
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| * Heywood, Colin. ''Writing Ottoman History: Documents and Interpretations.'' Ashgate, 2002. 376 pp.
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| * Holt, P. M. ''Egypt and the Fertile Crescent, 1516–1922: A Political History.'' 1966.
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| * Imber, Colin. ''The Ottoman Empire, 1300-1650: The Structure of Power'' (2003)
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| * Inalcik, Halil and Quataert, Donald, ed. ''An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914.'' 1995. 1026 pp.
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| * Itzkowitz, Norman. ''Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition.'' 1972.
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| * Kinross, Lord. ''Ottoman Centuries'' (1979)
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| * Kunt, Metin and Woodhead, Christine, ed. ''Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World.'' 1995. 218 pp.
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| * Levy, Avigdor, ed. ''The Jews of the Ottoman Empire,'' 1994.
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| * Levy, Avigdor, ed. ''Jews, Turks, Ottomans: A Shared History, Fifteenth to the Twentieth Century.'' (2002). 304 pp.
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| * McCarthy, Justin. ''The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923'' 1997 [http://www.questia.com/read/58745078 online edition]
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| * Murphy, Rhoads ''Ottoman Warfare 1500-1700'' (1999) 278 pp.
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| * Ochsenwald, William, and Sydney Nettleton Fisher. ''The Middle East: A History'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Middle-East-History-William-Ochsenwald/dp/0072442336/ref=sr_1_14?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874166&sr=8-14 excerpt and text search]
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| * Pamuk, Sevket. ''A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire.'' 1999. 276 pp.
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| * Parry, V.J. ''A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730'' (1976)
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| * Pierce, Leslie P. ''The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire.'' 1993. 374 pp.
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| * Quataert, Donald. ''The Ottoman Empire, 1700-1922'' (2005), standard scholarly survey [http://www.amazon.com/Ottoman-1700-1922-Approaches-European-History/dp/0521547822/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874589&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
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| * Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 1, '' 1977.
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| * Somel, Selcuk Aksin. ''Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire.'' (2003). 399 pp.
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| * Turnbull, Stephen. ''The Ottoman Empire 1326-1699'' (2003) 95pp[http://www.questia.com/read/108569306 online edition]
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| * Wheatcroft, Andrew. ''The Ottomans.'' 384 pp.
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| ===Post 1830===
| | see [[Turkey]] |
| * Ahmad, Feroz. ''The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908–1914'', 1969.
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| * Arnold, Guy. ''Historical Dictionary of the Crimean War.'' (2002). 179 pp.
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| * Black, Cyril E., and L. Carl Brown. ''Modernization in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire and Its Afro-Asian Successors.'' 1992.
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| * Erickson, Edward J. ''Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Ordered-Die-History-Contributions-Military/dp/0313315167/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874166&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
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| * Faroqhi, Suraiya. ''Subjects of the Sultan: Culture and Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire.'' 2000. 358 pp.
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| * Findley, Carter. ''Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire.'' 1980.
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| * Fortna, Benjamin C. ''Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire.'' 2002. 280 pp.
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| * Fromkin, David. ''A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East'' (2001) [http://www.amazon.com/Peace-End-All-Ottoman-Creation/dp/0805068848/ref=sr_1_10?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874166&sr=8-10 excerpt and text search]
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| * Göçek, Fatma Müge. ''Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman Westernization and Social Change.'' 1996. 220 pp.
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| * Hale, William. ''Turkish Foreign Policy, 1774-2000.'' (2000). 375 pp.
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| * Inalcik, Halil and Quataert, Donald, ed. ''An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1914.'' 1995. 1026 pp.
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| * Karpat, Kemal. ''Ottoman Population, 1830–1914'' 1985.
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| * Karpat, Kemal H. ''The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State.'' (2001). 533 pp.
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| * Kayali, Hasan. ''Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1918'' University of California Press, 1997; [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft7n39p1dn/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online]
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| * Kushner, David. ''The Rise of Turkish Nationalism, 1876–1908.'' 1977.
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| * Ma’oz, Moshe. ''Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine, 1840–1861.'' 1968.
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| * Mardin, Şerif. ''The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought.'' 1962.
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| * Miller, William. ''The Ottoman Empire, 1801–1913.'' 1913
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| * Owen, Roger. ''The Middle East in the World Economy, 1800–1914.'' 1981
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| * Quataert, Donald. ''Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire, 1881–1908.'' 1983.
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| * Ramsaur, E. E. ''The Young Turks: Prelude to the Revolution of 1908.'' 1957.
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| * Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. ''History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975.'' 1977. [http://www.amazon.com/History-Ottoman-Empire-Modern-Turkey/dp/0521291666/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874166&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
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| * Toledano, Ehud R. ''The Ottoman Slave Trade and Its Suppression, 1840–1890.'' 1982
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The Ottoman Empire controlled much of the Middle East from the 15th century to 1923.
PD Image Ottoman Empire, 1687 map
The first Ottoman Sultan, Osman I, after whom the dynasty and empire are named, declared himself independent of the Seljuq Sultanate in 1299. At what point in its expansion the sultanate starts to count as an empire is ultimately a matter of arbitrary convention. Sultan Mehmet (Muhammad) II is known as Mehmet the conqueror because in his brief reign he captured Constantinople (29 May 1453), the capital of the Byzantine or East Roman Empire. He adopted the title Qeyser-i-Rum, Roman Emperor.
In 1517 the Empire conquered the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and also Cairo, the seat of the widely recognized Abbasid Caliphs after Baghdad fell to the Mongols in 1258. The Sultans' claim to the title of Caliph came to be generally recognized. It was in this capacity that the Sultan declared a jihad against the Allies in 1914.
Administration
The Empire was largely administered by some of the Sultan's slaves, who were thus far more powerful and wealthy than most free people.
Law of succession
The right of succession to the throne belonged (and still belongs in the eyes of monarchists) to the oldest male member of the House of Osman. After the traditional practice of executing possible claimants was discontinued, this meant that the Sultan would usually be succeeded by a brother, uncle or cousin rather than his own son.
Military
The elite force of the Turkish military were the Janissaries, who were recruited by stealing very young boys from Christian families and bringing them up as fanatical Muslims.
Education
see Higher education in the Ottoman Empire
20th century
The remaining territories outside what is now Turkey were stripped away after the First World War. The last Sultan was deposed in 1922.
see Turkey
